andnoteventhen，unlessitdoessoinagreaterratiothanthatoftheriseofprice:forthough，athigherwages，heemploys，withagivencapital，fewerworkpeople，andobtainslessofthecommodity，yetifhecansellthewholeofthisdiminishedquantityatthehigherprice，hisprofitsareasgreatasbefore。
Thispartialriseofwages，ifnotgainedattheexpenseoftheremainderoftheworkingclass，oughtnottoberegardedasanevil。Theconsumer，indeed，mustpayforit;butcheapnessofgoodsisdesirableonlywhenthecauseofitisthattheirproductioncostslittlelabour，andnotwhenoccasionedbythatlabour’sbeingillremunerated。Itmayappear，indeed，atfirstsight，thatthehighwagesofthetype。founders（forexample）areobtainedatthegeneralcostofthelabouringclass。Thishighremunerationeithercausesfewerpersonstofindemploymentinthetrade，orifnot，mustleadtotheinvestmentofmorecapitalinit，attheexpenseofothertrades:inthefirstcase，itthrowsanadditionalnumberoflabourersonthegeneralmarket;
inthesecond，itwithdrawsfromthatmarketaportionofthedemand:effects，bothofwhichareinjurioustotheworkingclasses。Such，indeed，wouldreallybetheresultofasuccessfulcombinationinaparticulartradeortrades，forsometimeafteritsformation;butwhenitisapermanentthing，theprinciplessoofteninsisteduponinthistreatise，showthatitcanhavenosucheffect。Thehabitualearningsoftheworkingclassesatlargecanbeaffectedbynothingbutthehabitualrequirementsofthelabouringpeople:theseindeedmaybealtered，butwhiletheyremainthesame，wagesneverfallpermanentlybelowthestandardoftheserequirements，anddonotlongremainabovethatstandard。Iftherehadbeennocombinationsinparticulartrades，andthewagesofthosetradeshadneverbeenkeptabovethecommonlevel，thereisnoreasontosupposethatthecommonlevelwouldhavebeenatallhigherthanitnowis。Therewouldmerelyhavebeenagreaternumberofpeoplealtogether，andasmallernumberofexceptionstotheordinarylowrateofwages。
If，therefore，noimprovementweretobehopedforinthegeneralcircumstancesoftheworkingclasses，thesuccessofaportionofthem，howeversmall，inkeepingtheirwagesbycombinationabovethemarketrate，wouldbewhollyamatterofsatisfaction。Butwhentheelevationofthecharacterandconditionoftheentirebodyhasatlastbecomeathingnotbeyondthereachofrationaleffort，itistimethatthebetterpaidclassesofskilledartisansshouldseektheirownadvantageincommonwith，andnotbytheexclusionof，theirfellow—labourers。Whiletheycontinuetofixtheirhopesonhedgingthemselvesinagainstcompetition，andprotectingtheirownwagesbyshuttingoutothersfromaccesstotheiremployment，nothingbettercanbeexpectedfromthemthanthattotalabsenceofanylargeandgenerousaims，thatalmostopendisregardofallotherobjectsthanhighwagesandlittleworkfortheirownsmallbody，whichweresodeplorablyevidentintheproceedingsandmanifestoesoftheAmalgamatedSocietyofEngineersduringtheirquarrelwiththeiremployers。Success，evenifattainable，inraisingupaprotectedclassofworkingpeople，wouldnowbeahindrance，insteadofahelp，totheemancipationoftheworkingclassesatlarge。
Butthoughcombinationstokeepupwagesareseldomeffectual，andwheneffectual，are，forthereasonswhichIhaveassigned，seldomdesirable，therightofmakingtheattemptisonewhichcannotberefusedtoanyportionoftheworkingpopulationwithoutgreatinjustice，orwithouttheprobabilityoffatallymisleadingthemrespectingthecircumstanceswhichdeterminetheircondition。Solongascombinationstoraisewageswereprohibitedbylaw，thelawappearedtotheoperativestobetherealcauseofthelowwageswhichtherewasnodenyingthatithaddoneitsbesttoproduce。Experienceofstrikeshasbeenthebestteacherofthelabouringclassesonthesubjectoftherelationbetweenwagesandthedemandandsupplyoflabour:anditismostimportantthatthiscourseofinstructionshouldnotbedisturbed。
Itisagreaterrortocondemn，perseandabsolutely，eithertradesunionsorthecollectiveactionofstrikes。Evenassumingthatastrikemustinevitablyfailwheneveritattemptstoraisewagesabovethatmarketratewhichisfixedbythedemandandsupply;demandandsupplyarenotphysicalagencies，whichthrustagivenamountofwagesintoalabourer’shandwithouttheparticipationofhisownwillandactions。Themarketrateisnotfixedforhimbysomeself—actinginstrument，butistheresultofbargainingbetweenhumanbeings——ofwhatAdamSmithcalls’thehigglingofthemarket";andthosewhodonot’higgle’willlongcontinuetopay，evenoveracounter，morethanthemarketpricefortheirpurchases。Stillmoremightpoorlabourerswhohavetodowithrichemployers，remainlongwithouttheamountofwageswhichthedemandfortheirlabourwouldjustify，unless，invernacularphrase，theystood—outforit，andhowcantheystandoutfortermswithoutorganizedconcert？Whatchancewouldanylabourerhave，whostrucksinglyforanadvanceofwages？Howcouldheevenknowwhetherthestateofthemarketadmittedofarise，exceptbyconsultationwithhisfellows，naturallyleadingtoconcertedaction？Idonothesitatetosaythatassociationsoflabourers，ofanaturesimilartotradesunions，farfrombeingahindrancetoafreemarketforlabour，arethenecessaryinstrumentalityofthatfreemarket;theindispensablemeansofenablingthesellersoflabourtotakeduecareoftheirowninterestsunderasystemofcompetition。Thereisanulteriorconsiderationofmuchimportance，towhichattentionwasforthefirsttimedrawnbyProfessorFawcett，inanarticleintheWestminsterReview。Experiencehasatlengthenabledthemoreintelligenttradetotakeatolerablycorrectmeasureofthecircumstancesonwhichthesuccessofastrikeforanadvanceofwagesdepends。Thework。menarenownearlyaswellinformedasthemaster，ofthestateofthemarketforhiscommodities;theycancalculatehisgainsandhisexpenses，theyknowwhenhistradeisorisnotprosperous，andonlywhenitis，aretheyeveragainlikelytostrikeforhigherwages;whichwagestheirknownreadinesstostrikemakestheiremployersforthemostpartwilling，inthatcase，toconcede。Thetendency，therefore，ofthisstateofthingsistomakeariseofwagesinanyparticulartradeusuallyconsequentuponariseofprofits，which，asMrFawcettobserves，isacommencementofthatregularparticipationofthelabourersintheprofitsderivedfromtheirlabour，everytendencytowhich，forthereasOnsstatedinapreviouschapter，（2*）itissoimportanttoencourage，sincetoitwehavechieflytolookforanyradicalimprovementinthesocialandeconomicalrelationsbetweenlabourandcapital。Strikes，therefore，andthetradesocietieswhichrenderstrikespossible，areforthesevariousreasonsnotamischievous，butonthecontrary，avaluablepartoftheexistingmachineryofsociety。
Itis，however，anindispensableconditionoftoleratingcombinations，thattheyshouldbevoluntary。Noseverity，necessarytothepurpose，istoogreattobeemployedagainstattemptstocompelworkmentojoinaunion，ortakepartinastrikebythreatsorviolence。Meremoralcompulsion，bytheexpressionofopinion，thelawoughtnottointerferewith;itbelongstomoreenlightenedopiniontorestrainit，byrectifyingthemoralsentimentsofthepeople。Otherquestionsarisewhenthecombination，beingvoluntary，proposestoitselfobjectsreallycontrarytothepublicgood。Highwagesandshorthoursaregenerallygoodobjects，or，atallevents，maybeso:butinmanytradesunions，itisamongtherulesthatthereshallbenotaskwork，ornodifferenceofpaybetweenthemostexpertworkmenandthemostunskilful，orthatnomemberoftheunionshallearnmorethanacertainsumperweek，inorderthattheremaybemoreemploymentfortherest;andtheabolitionofpiecework，undermoreorlessofmodification，heldaconspicuousplaceamongthedemandsoftheAmalgamatedSociety。Thesearecombinationstoeffectobjectswhicharepernicious。Theirsuccess，evenwhenonlypartial，isapublicmischief;andwereitcomplete，wouldbeequalinmagnitudetoalmostanyoftheevilsarisingfrombadeconomicallegislation。Hardlyanythingworsecanbesaidoftheworstlawsonthesubjectofindustryanditsremuneration，consistentwiththepersonalfreedomofthelabourer，thanthattheyplacetheenergeticandtheidle，theskilfulandtheincompetent，onalevel:andthis，insofarasitisinitselfpossible，itisthedirecttendencyoftheregulationsoftheseunionstodo。Itdoesnot，however，followasaconsequencethatthelawwouldbewarrantedinmakingtheformationofsuchassociationsillegalandpunishable。
Independentlyofallconsiderationsofconstitutionalliberty，thebestinterestsofthehumanraceimperativelyrequirethatalleconomicalexperiments，voluntarilyundertaken，shouldhavethefullestlicence，andthatforceandfraudshouldbetheonlymeansofattemptingtobenefitthemselves，whichareinterdictedtothelessfortunateclassesofthecommunity。（3*）
6。Amongthemodesofundueexerciseofthepowerofgovernment，onwhichIhavecommentedinthischapter，Ihaveincludedonlysuchasrestontheorieswhichhavestillmoreorlessoffootinginthemostenlightenedcountries。Ihavenotspokenofsomewhichhavedonestillgreatermischiefintimesnotlongpast，butwhicharenowgenerallygivenup，atleastintheory，thoughenoughofthemstillremainsinpracticetomakeitimpossibleasyettoclassthemamongexplodederrors。
Thenotion，forexample，thatagovernmentshouldchooseopinionsforthepeople，andshouldnotsufferanydoctrinesinpolitics，morals，law，orreligion，butsuchasitapproves，tobeprintedorpubliclyprofessed，maybesaidtobealtogetherabandonedasageneralthesis。Itisnowwellunderstoodthataregimeofthissortisfataltoallprosperity，evenofaneconomicalkind:thatthehumanmindwhenpreventedeitherbyfearofthelaworbyfearofopinionfromexercisingitsfacultiesfreelyonthemostimportantsubjects，acquiresageneraltorpidityandimbecility，bywhich，whentheyreachacertainpoint，itisdisqualifiedfrommakinganyconsiderableadvanceseveninthecommonaffairsoflife，andwhich，whengreaterstill，makeitgraduallyloseevenitspreviousattainments。TherecannotbeamoredecisiveexamplethanSpainandPortugal，fortwocenturiesaftertheReformation。Thedeclineofthosecountriesinnationalgreatness，andeveninmaterialcivilization，whilealmostalltheothernationsofEuropewereuninterruptedlyadvancing，hasbeenascribedtovariouscauses，butthereisonewhichliesatthefoundationofthemall:theHolyInquisition，andthesystemofmentalslaveryofwhichitisthesymbol。
Yetalthoughthesetruthsareverywidelyrecognized，andfreedombothofopinionandofdiscussionisadmittedasanaxiominallfreecountries，thisapparentliberalityandtolerancehasacquiredsolittleoftheauthorityofaprinciple，thatitisalwaysreadytogivewaytothedreadorhorrorinspiredbysomeparticularsortofopinions。Withinthelastfifteenortwentyyearsseveralindividualshavesufferedimprisonment，forthepublicprofession，sometimesinaverytemperatemanner，ofdisbeliefinreligion;anditisprobablethatboththepublicandthegovernment，atthefirstpanicwhicharisesonthesubjectofChartismorCommunism，willflytosimilarmeansforcheckingthepropagationofdemocraticoranti—propertydoctrines。Inthiscountry，however，theeffectiverestraintsonmentalfreedomproceedmuchlessfromthelaworthegovernment，thanfromtheintoleranttemperofthenationalmind;arisingnolongerfromevenasrespectableasourceasbigotryorfanaticism，butratherfromthegeneralhabit，bothinopinionandconduct，ofmakingadherencetocustomtheruleoflife，andenforcingit，bysocialpenalties，againstallpersonswho，withoutapartytobackthem，asserttheirindividualindependence。
NOTES:
1。TothisMrCareywouldreply（indeedhehasalreadysorepliedinadvance）thatofallcommoditiesmanureistheleastsusceptibleofbeingconveyedtoadistance。thisistrueofsewage，andofstablemanure，butnottrueoftheingredientstowhichthosemanuresowetheirefficiency。These，onthecontrary，arechieflysubstancescontaininggreatfertilizingpowerinsmallbulk;substancesofwhichthehumanbodyrequiresbutasmallquantity，andhencepeculiarlysusceptibleofbeingimported;themineralalkaliesandthephosphates，thequestionindeedmainlyconcernsthephosphates，forofthealkalies，sodaisprocurableeverywhere;whilepotass，beingoneoftheconstituentsofgraniteandtheotherfeldspathicrocks，existsinmanysubsoils，bywhoseprogressivedecompositionitisrenewed，alargequantityalsobeingbroughtdowninthedepositsofrivers。Asforthephosphates，they，intheveryconvenientformofpulverizedbones，arearegulararticleofcommerce，largelyimportedintoEngland;astheyaresuretobeintoanycountrywheretheconditionsofindustrymakeitworthwhiletopaytheprice。
2。Supra，Bk。V，Ch。VII。
3。WhoeverdesirestounderstandthequestionofTradeCombinationsasseenfromthepointofviewoftheworkingpeople，shouldmakehimselfacquaintedwithapamphletpublishedin1860，underthetitle’TradesUnionsandStrikes，theirPhilosophyandIntention;byT。J。Dunning，SecretarytotheLondonConsolidatedSocietyofBookbinders’。TherearemanyopinionsinthisabletractinwhichIonlypartially，andsomeinwhichIdonotatall，coincide。Buttherearealsomanysoundarguments，andaninstructiveexposureofthecommonfallaciesofopponents。Readersofotherclasseswillseewithsurprise，notonlyhowgreataportionoftruththeUnionshaveontheirside，buthowmuchlessflagrantandcondemnableeventheirerrorsappear，whenseenundertheaspectinwhichitisonlynaturalthattheworkingclassesshouldthemselvesregardthem。
ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomybyJohnStuartMillBook5
Chapter11
OftheGroundsandLimitsoftheLaisser—faireorNon—interferencePrinciple1。Wehavenowreachedthelastpartofourundertaking;thediscussion，sofarassuitedtothistreatise（thatis，sofarasitisaquestionofprinciple，notdetail）ofthelimitsoftheprovinceofgovernment:thequestion，towhatobjectsgovernmentalinterventionintheaffairsofsocietymayorshouldextend，overandabovethosewhichnecessarilyappertaintoit。
Nosubjecthasbeenmorekeenlycontestedinthepresentage:thecontest，however，haschieflytakenplaceroundcertainselectpoints，withonlyflyingexcursionsintotherestofthefield。
Thoseindeedwhohavediscussedanyparticularquestionofgovernmentinterference，suchasstateeducation（spiritualorsecular），regulationofhoursoflabour，apublicprovisionforthepoor，&c。，haveoftendealtlargelyingeneralarguments，faroutstretchingthespecialapplicationmadeofthem，andhaveshownasufficientlystrongbiaseitherinfavouroflettingthingsalone，orinfavourofmeddling;buthaveseldomdeclared，orapparentlydecidedintheirownminds，howfartheywouldcarryeitherprinciple。Thesupportersofinterferencehavebeencontentwithassertingageneralrightanddutyonthepartofgovernmenttointervene，whereveritsinterventionwouldbeuseful:andwhenthosewhohavebeencalledthelaisser—faireschoolhaveattemptedanydefinitelimitationoftheprovinceofgovernment，theyhaveusuallyrestrictedittotheprotectionofpersonandpropertyagainstforceandfraud;adefinitiontowhichneithertheynoranyoneelsecandeliberatelyadhere，sinceitexcludes，ashasbeenshowninaprecedingchapter，（1*）
someofthemostindispensableandunanimouslyrecognizedofthedutiesofgovernment。
Withoutprofessingentirelytosupplythisdeficiencyofageneraltheory，onaquestionwhichdoesnot，asIconceive，admitofanyuniversalsolution，Ishallattempttoaffordsomelittleaidtowardstheresolutionofthisclassofquestionsastheyarise，byexamining，inthemostgeneralpointofviewinwhichthesubjectcanbeconsidered，whataretheadvantages，andwhattheevilsorinconveniences，ofgovernmentinterference。
Wemustsetoutbydistinguishingbetweentwokindsofinterventionbythegovernment，which，thoughtheymayrelatetothesamesubject，differwidelyintheirnatureandeffects，andrequire，fortheirjustification，motivesofaverydifferentdegreeofurgency。Theinterventionmayextendtocontrollingthefreeagencyofindividuals。Governmentmayinterdictallpersonsfromdoingcertainthings;orfromdoingthemwithoutitsauthorization;ormayprescribetothemcertainthingstobedone，oracertainmannerofdoingthingswhichitisleftoptionalwiththemtodoortoabstainfrom。Thisistheauthoritativeinterferenceofgovernment。Thereisanotherkindofinterventionwhichisnotauthoritative:whenagovernment，insteadofissuingacommandandenforcingitbypenalties，adoptsthecoursesoseldomresortedtobygovernments，andofwhichsuchimportantusemightbemade，thatofgivingadviceandpromulgatinginformation;orwhen，leavingindividualsfreetousetheirownmeansofpursuinganyobjectofgeneralinterest，thegovernment，notmeddlingwiththem，butnottrustingtheobjectsolelytotheircare，establishes，sidebysidewiththeirarrangements，anagencyofitsownforalikepurpose。Thus，itisonethingtomaintainaChurchEstablishment，andanothertorefusetolerationtootherreligions，ortopersonsprofessingnoreligion。Itisonethingtoprovideschoolsorcolleges，andanothertorequirethatnopersonshallactasaninstructorofyouthwithoutagovernmentlicence。Theremightbeanationalbank，oragovernmentmanufactory，withoutanymonopolyagainstprivatebanksandmanufactories。Theremightbeapost—office，withoutpenaltiesagainsttheconveyanceoflettersbyanyothermeans。Theremaybeacorpsofgovernmentengineersforcivilpurposes，whiletheprofessionofacivilengineerisfreetobeadoptedbyeveryone。Theremaybepublichospitals，withoutanyrestrictionuponprivatemedicalorsurgicalpractice。
2。Itisevident，evenatfirstsight，thattheauthoritativeformofgovernmentinterventionhasamuchmorelimitedsphereoflegitimateactionthantheother。Itrequiresamuchstrongernecessitytojustifyitinanycase;whiletherearelargedepartmentsofhumanlifefromwhichitmustbeunreservedlyandimperiouslyexcluded。Whatevertheoryweadoptrespectingthefoundationofthesocialunion，andunderwhateverpoliticalinstitutionswelive，thereisacirclearoundeveryindividualhumanbeing，whichnogovernment，beitthatofone，ofafew，orofthemany，oughttobepermittedtooverstep:thereisapartofthelifeofeverypersonwhohascometoyearsofdiscretion，withinwhichtheindividualityofthatpersonoughttoreignuncontrolledeitherbyanyotherindividualorbythepubliccollectively。Thatthereis，oroughttobe，somespaceinhumanexistencethusentrenchedaround，andsacredfromauthoritativeintrusion，noonewhoprofessesthesmallestregardtohumanfreedomordignitywillcallinquestion:thepointtobedeterminedis，wherethelimitshouldbeplaced;howlargeaprovinceofhumanlifethisreservedterritoryshouldinclude。I
apprehendthatitoughttoincludeallthatpartwhichconcernsonlythelife，whetherinwardoroutward，oftheindividual，anddoesnotaffecttheinterestsofothers，oraffectsthemonlythroughthemoralinfluenceofexample。Withrespecttothedomainoftheinwardconsciousness，thethoughtsandfeelings，andasmuchofexternalconductasispersonalonly，involvingnoconsequences，noneatleastofapainfulorinjuriouskind，tootherpeople:Iholdthatitisallowableinall，andinthemorethoughtfulandcultivatedoftenaduty，toassertandpromulgate，withalltheforcetheyarecapableof，theiropinionofwhatisgoodorbad，admirableorcontemptible，butnottocompelotherstoconformtothatopinion;whethertheforceusedisthatofextra。legalcoercion，orexertsitselfbymeansofthelaw。
Eveninthoseportionsofconductwhichdoaffecttheinterestofothers，theonusofmakingoutacasealwaysliesonthedefendersoflegalprohibitions。Itisnotamerelyconstructiveorpresumptiveinjurytoothers，whichwilljustifytheinterferenceoflawwithindividualfreedom。Tobepreventedfromdoingwhatoneisinclinedto，fromactingaccordingtoone’sownjudgmentofwhatisdesirable，isnotonlyalwaysirksome，butalwaystends，protanto，tostarvethedevelopmentofsomeportionofthebodilyormentalfaculties，eithersensitiveoractive;andunlesstheconscienceoftheindividualgoesfreelywiththelegalrestraint，itpartakes，eitherinagreatorinasmalldegree，ofthedegradationofslavery。
Scarcelyanydegreeofutility，shortofabsolutenecessity，willjustifyaprohibitoryregulation，unlessitcanalsobemadetorecommenditselftothegeneralconscience;unlesspersonsofordinarygoodintentionseitherbelievealready，orcanbeinducedtobelieve，thatthethingprohibitedisathingwhichtheyoughtnottowishtodo。
Itisotherwisewithgovernmentalinterferenceswhichdonotrestrainindividualfreeagency。Whenagovernmentprovidesmeansoffulfillingacertainend，leavingindividualsfreetoavailthemselvesofdifferentmeansifintheiropinionpreferable，thereisnoinfringementofliberty，noirksomeordegradingrestraint。Oneoftheprincipalobjectionstogovernmentinterferenceisthenabsent。Thereis，however，inalmostallformsofgovernmentagency，onethingwhichiscompulsory。theprovisionofthepecuniarymeans。Thesearederivedfromtaxation;or，ifexistingintheformofanendowmentderivedfrompublicproperty，theyarestillthecauseofasmuchcompulsorytaxationasthesaleortheannualproceedsofthepropertywouldenabletobedispensedwith。（2*）Andtheobjectionnecessarilyattachingtocompulsorycontributions，isalmostalwaysgreatlyaggravatedbytheexpensiveprecautionsandonerousrestrictions，whichareindispensabletopreventevasionofacompulsorytax。
3。Asecondgeneralobjectiontogovernmentagency，isthateveryincreaseofthefunctionsdevolvingonthegovernmentisanincreaseofitspower，bothintheformofauthority，andstillmore，intheindirectformofinfluence。Theimportanceofthisconsideration，inrespectofpoliticalfreedom，hasingeneralbeenquitesufficientlyrecognized，atleastinEngland，butmany，inlattertimes，havebeenpronetothinkthatlimitationofthepowersofthegovernmentisonlyessentialwhenthegovernmentitselfisbadlyconstituted;whenitdoesnotrepresentthepeople，butistheorganofaclass，orcoalitionofclasses:andthatagovernmentofsufficientlypopularconstitutionmightbetrustedwithanyamountofpoweroverthenation，sinceitspowerwouldbeonlythatofthenationoveritself。Thismightbetrue，ifthenation，insuchcases，didnotpracticallymeanameremajorityofthenation，andifminoritieswereonlycapableofoppressing，butnotofbeingoppressed。
Experience，however，provesthatthedepositariesofpowerwhoaremeredelegatesofthepeople，thatisofamajority，arequiteasready（whentheythinktheycancountonpopularsupport）asanyorgansofoligarchy，toassumearbitrarypower，andencroachundulyonthelibertyofprivatelife。Thepubliccollectivelyisabundantlyreadytoimpose，notonlyitsgenerallynarrowviewsofitsinterests，butitsabstractopinions，andevenitstastes，aslawsbindinguponindividuals。
Andthepresentcivilizationtendssostronglytomakethepowerofpersonsactinginmassestheonlysubstantialpowerinsociety，thatthereneverwasmorenecessityforsurroundingindividualindependenceofthought，speech，andconduct，withthemostpowerfuldefences，inordertomaintainthatoriginalityofmindandindividualityofcharacter，whicharetheonlysourceofanyrealprogress，andofmostofthequalitieswhichmakethehumanracemuchsuperiortoanyherdofanimals。Henceitisnolessimportantinademocraticthaninanyothergovernment，thatalltendencyonthepartofpublicauthoritiestostretchtheirinterference，andassumeapowerofanysortwhichcaneasilybedispensedwith，shouldberegardedwithunremittingjealousy。
Perhapsthisisevenmoreimportantinademocracythaninanyotherformofpoliticalsociety;becausewherepublicopinionissovereign，anindividualwhoisoppressedbythesovereigndoesnot，asinmostotherstatesofthings，findarivalpowertowhichhecanappealforrelief，or，atallevents，forsympathy。
4。Athirdgeneralobjectiontogovernmentagency，restsontheprincipleofthedivisionoflabour。Everyadditionalfunctionundertakenbythegovernment，isafreshoccupationimposeduponabodyalreadyoverchargedwithduties。Anaturalconsequenceisthatmostthingsareilldone;muchnotdoneatall，becausethegovernmentisnotabletodoitwithoutdelayswhicharefataltoitspurpose;thatthemoretroublesomeandlessshowy，ofthefunctionsundertaken，arepostponedorneglected，andanexcuseisalwaysreadyfortheneglect;whiletheheadsoftheadministrationhavetheirmindssofullytakenupwithofficialdetails，inhoweverperfunctoryamannersuperintended，thattheyhavenotimeorthoughttospareforthegreatinterestsofthestate，andthepreparationofenlargedmeasuresofsocialimprovement。
Buttheseinconveniences，thoughrealandserious，resultmuchmorefromthebadorganizationofgovernments，thanfromtheextentandvarietyofthedutiesundertakenbythem。Governmentisnotanameforsomeonefunctionary，ordefinitenumberoffunctionaries:theremaybealmostanyamountofdivisionoflabourwithintheadministrativebodyitself。TheevilinquestionisfeltingreatmagnitudeundersomeofthegovernmentsoftheContinent，wheresixoreightmen，livingatthecapitalandknownbythenameofministers，demandthatthewholepublicbusinessofthecountryshallpass，orbesupposedtopass，undertheirindividualeye。Buttheinconveniencewouldbereducedtoaverymanageablecompass，inacountryinwhichtherewasaproperdistributionoffunctionsbetweenthecentralandlocalofficersofgovernment，andinwhichthecentralbodywasdividedintoasufficientnumberofdepartments。WhenParliamentthoughtitexpedienttoconferonthegovernmentaninspectingandpartiallycontrollingauthorityoverrailways，itdidnotaddrailwaystothedepartmentoftheHomeMinister，butcreatedaRailwayBoard。
Whenitdeterminedtohaveacentralsuperintendingauthorityforpauperadministration，itestablishedthePoorLawCommission。
Therearefewcountriesinwhichagreaternumberoffunctionsaredischargedbypublicofficers，thaninsomestatesoftheAmericanUnion，particularlytheNewEnglandStates;butthedivisionoflabourinpublicbusinessisextreme;mostoftheseofficersbeingnotevenamenabletoanycommonsuperior，butperformingtheirdutiesfreely，underthedoublecheckofelectionbytheirtownsmen，andcivilaswellascriminalresponsibilitytothetribunals。
Itis，nodoubt，indispensabletogoodgovernmentthatthechiefsoftheadministration，whetherpermanentortemporary，shouldextendacommanding，thoughgeneral，viewovertheensembleofalltheinterestsconfided，inanydegree，totheresponsibilityofthecentralpower。Butwithaskilfulinternalorganizationoftheadministrativemachine，leavingtosubordinates，andasfaraspossible，tolocalsubordinates，notonlytheexecution，buttoagreaterdegreethecontrol，ofdetails;holdingthemaccountablefortheresultsoftheiractsratherthanfortheactsthemselves，exceptwherethesecomewithinthecognizanceofthetribunals;takingthemosteffectualsecuritiesforhonestandcapableappointments;openingabroadpathtopromotionfromtheinferiordegreesoftheadministrativescaletothesuperior;leaving，ateachstep，tothefunctionary，awiderrangeintheoriginationofmeasures，sothat，inthehighestgradeofall，deliberationmightbeconcentratedonthegreatcollectiveinterestsofthecountryineachdepartment;ifallthisweredone，thegovernmentwouldnotprobablybeoverburthenedbyanybusiness，inotherrespectsfittobeundertakenbyit;thoughtheoverburtheningwouldremainasaseriousadditiontotheinconveniencesincurredbyitsundertakinganywhichwasunfit。
5。Butthoughabetterorganizationofgovernmentswouldgreatlydiminishtheforceoftheobjectiontothemeremultiplicationoftheirduties，itwouldstillremaintruethatinallthemoreadvancedcommunities，thegreatmajorityofthingsareworsedonebytheinterventionofgovernment，thantheindividualsmostinterestedinthematterwoulddothem，orcausethemtobedone，iflefttothemselves。Thegroundsofthistruthareexpressedwithtolerableexactnessinthepoplardictum，thatpeopleunderstandtheirownbusinessandtheirowninterestsbetter，andcareforthemmore，thanthegovernmentdoes，orcanbeexpectedtodo。Thismaximholdstruethroughoutthegreatestpartofthebusinessoflife，andwhereveritistrueweoughttocondemneverykindofgovernmentinterventionthatconflictswithit。Theinferiorityofgovernmentagency，forexample，inanyofthecommonoperationsofindustryorcommerce，isprovedbythefact，thatitishardlyeverabletomaintain……itselfinequalcompetitionwithindividualagency，wheretheindividualspossesstherequisitedegreeofindustrialenterprise，andcancommandthenecessaryassemblageofmeans。Allthefacilitieswhichagovernmentenjoysofaccesstoinformation;allthemeanswhichitpossessesofremunerating，andthereforeofcommanding，thebestavailabletalentinthemarket——arenotanequivalentfortheonegreatdisadvantageofaninferiorinterestintheresult。
Itmustberemembered，besides，thatevenifagovernmentweresuperiorinintelligenceandknowledgetoanysingleindividualinthenation，itmustbeinferiortoalltheindividualsofthenationtakentogether。Itcanneitherpossessinitself，norenlistinitsservice，morethanaportionoftheacquirementsandcapacitieswhichthecountrycontains，applicabletoanygivenpurpose。Theremustbemanypersonsequallyqualifiedfortheworkwiththosewhomthegovernmentemploys，evenifitselectsitsinstrumentswithnoreferencetoanyconsiderationbuttheirfitness。Nowthesearetheverypersonsintowhosehands，inthecasesofmostcommonoccurrence，asystemofindividualagencynaturallytendstothrowthework，becausetheyarecapableofdoingitbetteroroncheapertermsthananyotherpersons。Sofarasthisisthecase，itisevidentthatgovernment，byexcludingorevenbysupersedingindividualagency，eithersubstitutesalessqualifiedinstrumentalityforonebetterqualified，oratanyratesubstitutesitsownmodeofaccomplishingthework，forallthevarietyofmodeswhichwouldbetriedbyanumberofequallyqualifiedpersonsaimingatthesameend;acompetitionbymanydegreesmorepropitioustotheprogressofimprovement，thananyuniformityofsystem。
6。Ihavereservedforthelastplaceoneofthestrongestofthereasonsagainsttheextensionofgovernmentagency，Evenifthegovernmentcouldcomprehendwithinitself，ineachdepartment，allthemosteminentintellectualcapacityandactivetalentofthenation，itwouldnotbethelessdesirablethattheconductofalargeportionoftheaffairsofthesocietyshouldbeleftinthehandsofthepersonsimmediatelyinterestedinthem。Thebusinessoflifeisanessentialpartofthepracticaleducationofapeople;withoutwhich，bookandschoolinstruction，thoughmostnecessaryandsalutary，doesnotsufficetoqualifythemforconduct，andfortheadaptationofmeanstoends。Instructionisonlyoneofthedesiderataofmentalimprovement;another，almostasindispensable，isavigorousexerciseoftheactiveenergies;labour，contrivance，judgment，self—control:andthenaturalstimulustotheseisthedifficultiesoflife。Thisdoctrineisnottobeconfoundedwiththecomplacentoptimism，whichrepresentstheevilsoflifeasdesirablethings，becausetheycallforthqualitiesadaptedtocombatwithevils。Itisonlybecausethedifficultiesexist，thatthequalitieswhichcombatwiththemareofanyvalue。Aspracticalbeingsitisourbusinesstofreehumanlifefromasmanyaspossibleofitsdifficulties，andnottokeepupastockofthemashunterspreservegame，fortheexerciseofpursuingit。Butsincetheneedofactivetalentandpracticaljudgmentintheaffairsoflifecanonlybediminished，andnot，evenonthemostfavourablesupposition，doneawaywith，itisimportantthatthoseendowmentsshouldbecultivatednotmerelyinaselectfew，butinall，andthatthecultivationshouldbemorevariedandcompletethanmostpersonsareabletofindinthenarrowsphereoftheirmerelyindividualinterests。Apeopleamongwhomthereisnohabitofspontaneousactionforacollectiveinterest——
wholookhabituallytotheirgovernmenttocommandorprompttheminallmattersofjointconcern——whoexpecttohaveeverythingdoneforthem，exceptwhatcanbemadeanaffairofmerehabitandroutine——havetheirfacultiesonlyhalfdeveloped;theireducationisdefectiveinoneofitsmostimportantbranches。
Notonlyisthecultivationoftheactivefacultiesbyexercise，diffusedthroughthewholecommunity，initselfoneofthemostvaluableofnationalpossessions:itisrendered，notless，butmore，necessary，whenahighdegreeofthatindispensablecultureissystematicallykeptupinthechiefsandfunctionariesofthestate。Therecannotbeacombinationofcircumstancesmoredangeroustohumanwelfare，thanthatinwhichintelligenceandtalentaremaintainedatahighstandardwithinagoverningcorporation，butstarvedanddiscouragedoutsidethepale。Suchasystem，morecompletelythananyother，embodiestheideaofdespotism，byarmingwithintellectualsuperiorityasanadditionalweapon，thosewhohavealreadythelegalpower。Itapproachesasnearlyastheorganicdifferencebetweenhumanbeingsandotheranimalsadmits，tothegovernmentofsheepbytheirshepherd，withoutanythinglikesostronganinterestastheshepherdhasinthethrivingconditionoftheflock。Theonlysecurityagainstpoliticalslavery，isthecheckmaintainedovergovernors，bythediffusionofintelligence，activity，andpublicspiritamongthegoverned。Experienceprovestheextremedifficultyofpermanentlykeepingupasufficientlyhighstandardofthosequalities;adifficultywhichincreases，astheadvanceofcivilizationandsecurityremovesoneafteranotherofthehardships，embarrassments，anddangersagainstwhichindividualshadformerlynoresourcebutintheirownstrength，skill，andcourage。Itisthereforeofsupremeimportancethatallclassesofthecommunity，downtothelowest，shouldhavemuchtodoforthemselves;thatasgreatademandshouldbemadeupontheirintelligenceandvirtueasitisinanyrespectequalto;thatthegovernmentshouldnotonlyleaveasfaraspossibletotheirownfacultiestheconductofwhateverconcernsthemselvesalone，butshouldsufferthem，orratherencouragethem，tomanageasmanyaspossibleoftheirjointconcernsbyvoluntaryco—operation;sincethisdiscussionandmanagementofcollectiveinterestsisthegreatschoolofthatpublicspirit，andthegreatsourceofthatintelligenceofpublicaffairs，whicharealwaysregardedasthedistinct。ivecharacterofthepublicoffreecountries。
Ademocraticconstitution，notsupportedbydemocraticinstitutionsindetail，butconfinedtothecentralgovernment，notonlyisnotpoliticalfreedom，butoftencreatesaspiritpreciselythereverse，carryingdowntothelowestgradeinsocietythedesireandambitionofpoliticaldomination。Insomecountriesthedesireofthepeopleisfornotbeingtyrannizedover，butinothersitismerelyforanequalchancetoeverybodyoftyrannizing。Unhappilythislaststateofthedesiresisfullyasnaturaltoman。kindastheformer，andinmanyoftheconditionsevenofcivilizedhumanity，isfarmorelargelyexemplified。Inproportionasthepeopleareaccustomedtomanagetheiraffairsbytheirownactiveintervention，insteadofleavingthemtothegovernment，theirdesireswillturntorepellingtyranny，ratherthantotyrannizing:whileinproportionasallrealinitiativeanddirectionresidesinthegovernment，andindividualshabituallyfeelandactasunderitsperpetualtutelage，popularinstitutionsdevelopinthemnotthedesireoffreedom，butanunmeasuredappetiteforplaceandpower:divertingtheintelligenceandactivityofthecountryfromitsprincipalbusiness，toawretchedcompetitionfortheselfishprizesandthepettyvanitiesofoffice。
7。Theprecedingaretheprincipalreasons，ofageneralcharacter，infavourofrestrictingtothenarrowestcompasstheinterventionofapublicauthorityinthebusinessofthecommunity:andfewwilldisputethemorethansufficiencyofthesereasons，tothrow，ineveryinstance，theburthenofmakingoutastrongcase，notonthosewhoresist，butonthosewhorecommend，governmentinterference。Laisser—faire，inshort，shouldbethegeneralpractice:everydeparturefromit，unlessrequiredbysomegreatgood，isacertainevil。
Thedegreeinwhichthemaxim，eveninthecasestowhichitismostmanifestlyapplicable，hasheretoforebeeninfringedbygovernments，futureageswillprobablyhavedifficultyincrediting。SomeideamaybeformedofitfromthedescriptionofM。Dunoyer（3*）oftherestraintsimposedontheoperationsofmanufactureundertheoldgovernmentofFrance，bythemeddlingandregulatingspiritoflegislation。’Lasocieteexercaitsurlafabricationlajuridictionlaplusillimiteeetlaplusarbitraire:elledisposaitsansscrupuledesfacultesdesfabricants;elledecidaitquipourraittravailler，quellechoseonpourraitfaire，quelsmateriauxondevraitemployer，quelsprocedesilfaudraitsuivre，quellesformesondonneraitauxproduits，etc。Ilnesuffisaitpasdefairebien，defairemieux，ilfallaitfairesuivantlesregles。Quineconnaitcereglementde1670，quiprescrivaitdesaisiretdecloueraupoteau，aveclenomdesauteurs，lesmarchandisesnonconformesauxreglestracees，etqui，alaseconderecidive，voulaitquelesfabricantsyfussentattacheseuxmemes？Ilnes’agissaitpasdeconsulterlegoutdesconsommateurs，maisdeseconformerauxvolontesdelaloi。Deslegionsd’inspecteurs，decommissaires，decontroleurs，dejures，degardes，etainetchargesdelesfaireexecuter;onbrisaitlesmetiers，onbrulaitlesproduitsquin’yetaientpasconformes:lesameliorationsetaientpunies;onmettaitlesinventeursal’amende。Onsoumettaitadesreglesdifferenteslafabricationdesobjetsdestinesalaconsommationinterieureetcelledesproduitsdestinesaucommerceetranger。
Unartisann’etaitpaslemaitredechoisirlelieudesonetablissement，nidetravaillerentoutesaison，nidetravaillerpourtoutlemonde。Ilexisteundecretdu30Mars1700，quiborneadix—huitvilleslenombredeslieuxoul’onpourrafairedesbasaumetier;unarretdu18Juin1723enjointauxfabricantsdeRouendesuspendreleurstravauxdu1erJuilletau15Septembre，affindefaciliterceuxdelarecolte;LouisXIV，quandilvoulutentreprendrelacolonnadeduLouvre，defenditauxparticuliersd’employerdesouvrierssanssapermission，souspeinede10，000livresd’amende，etauxouvriersdetravaillerpourlesparticuliers，souspeine，pourlapremierefois，delaprison，etpourlaseconde，desgaleres。’
Thattheseandsimilarregulationswerenotadeadletter，andthattheofficiousandvexatiousmeddlingwasprolongeddowntotheFrenchRevolution，wehavethetestimonyofRoland，theGirondistminister。（4*）’Ihaveseen’，sayshe，’eighty，ninety，ahundredpiecesofcottonorwoollenstuffcutup，andcompletelydestroyed。Ihavewitnessedsimilarsceneseveryweekforanumberofyears。Ihaveseenmanufacturedgoodsconfiscated;heavyfineslaidonthemanufacturers;somepiecesoffabricwereburntinpublicplaces，andatthehoursofmarket:otherswerefixedtothepillory，withthenameofthemanufacturerinscribeduponthem，andhehimselfwasthreatenedwiththepillory，incaseofasecondoffence。Allthiswasdoneundermyeyes，atRouen，inconformitywithexistingregulations，orministerialorders。Whatcrimedeservedsocruelapunishment？
Somedefectsinthematerialsemployed，orinthetextureofthefabric，oreveninsomeofthethreadsofthewarp。
’Ihavefrequentlyseenmanufacturersvisitedbyabandofsatelliteswhoputallinconfusionintheirestablishments，spreadterrorintheirfamilies，cutthestuffsfromtheframes，toreoffthewarpfromthelooms，andcarriedthemawayasproofsofinfringement;themanufacturersweresummoned，tried，andcondemned:theirgoodsconfiscated;copiesoftheirjudgmentofconfiscationpostedupineverypublicplace;fortune，reputation，credit，allwaslostanddestroyed。Andforwhatoffence？Becausetheyhadmadeofworsted，akindofclothcalledshag，suchastheEnglishusedtomanufacture，andevensellinFrance，whiletheFrenchregulationsstatedthatthatkindofclothshouldbemadewithmohair。Ihaveseenothermanufacturerstreatedinthesameway，becausetheyhadmadecamletsofaparticularwidth，usedinEnglandandGermany，forwhichtherewasagreatdemandfromSpain，Portugal，andothercountries，andfromseveralpartsofFrance，whiletheFrenchregulationsprescribedotherwidthsforcamlets。’
Thetimeisgoneby，whensuchapplicationsastheseoftheprincipleof’paternalgovernment’wouldbeattempted，ineventheleastenlightenedcountryoftheEuropeancommonwealthofnations。Insuchcasesasthosecited，allthegeneralobjectionstogovernmentinterferencearevalid，andseveraloftheminnearlytheirhighestdegree。Butwemustnowturntothesecondpartofourtask，anddirectourattentiontocases，inwhichsomeofthosegeneralobjectionsarealtogetherabsent，whilethosewhichcanneverbegotridofentirely，areoverruledbycounter—considerationsofstillgreaterimportance。
Wehaveobservedthat，asageneralrule，thebusinessoflifeisbetterperformedwhenthosewhohaveanimmediateinterestinitarelefttotaketheirowncourse，uncontrolledeitherbythemandateofthelaworbythemeddlingofanypublicfunctionary。Thepersons，orsomeofthepersons，whodothework，arelikelytobebetterjudgesthanthegovernment，ofthemeansofattainingtheparticularendatwhichtheyaim。Werewetosuppose，whatisnotveryprobable，thatthegovernmenthaspossesseditselfofthebestknowledgewhichhadbeenacquireduptoagiventimebythepersonsmostskilledintheoccupation;
eventhen，theindividualagentshavesomuchstrongerandmoredirectaninterestintheresult，thatthemeansarefarmorelikelytobeimprovedandperfectediflefttotheiruncontrolledchoice。Butiftheworkmanisgenerallythebestselectorofmeans，canitbeaffirmedwiththesameuniversality，thattheconsumer，orpersonserved，isthemostcompetentjudgeoftheend？Isthebuyeralwaysqualifiedtojudgeofthecommodity？Ifnot，thepresumptioninfavourofthecompetitionofthemarketdoesnotapplytothecase;andifthecommoditybeone，inthequalityofwhichsocietyhasmuchatstake，thebalanceofadvantagesmaybeinfavourofsomemodeanddegreeofintervention，bytheauthorizedrepresentativesofthecollectiveinterestofthestate。
8。Now，thepropositionthattheconsumerisacompetentjudgeofthecommodity，canbeadmittedonlywithnumerousabatementsandexceptions。Heisgenerallythebestjudge（thougheventhisisnottrueuniversally）ofthematerialobjectsproducedforhisuse。Thesearedestinedtosupplysomephysicalwant，orgratifysometasteorinclination，respectingwhichwantsorinclinationsthereisnoappealfromthepersonwhofeelsthem;ortheyarethemeansandappliancesofsomeoccupation，fortheuseofthepersonsengagedinit，whomaybepresumedtobejudgesofthethingsrequiredintheirownhabitualemployment。Butthereareotherthings，oftheworthofwhichthedemandofthemarketisbynomeansatest;thingsofwhichtheutilitydoesnotconsistinministeringtoinclinations，norinservingthedailyusesoflife，andthewantofwhichisleastfeltwheretheneedisgreatest。Thisispeculiarlytrueofthosethingswhicharechieflyusefulastendingtoraisethecharacterofhumanbeings。Theuncultivatedcannotbecompetentjudgesofcultivation。Thosewhomostneedtobemadewiserandbetter，usuallydesireitleast，andiftheydesiredit，wouldbeincapableoffindingthewaytoitbytheirownlights。Itwillcontinuallyhappen，onthevoluntarysystem，thattheendnotbeingdesired，themeanswillnotbeprovidedatall，orthat，thepersonsrequiringimprovementhavinganimperfectoraltogethererroneousconceptionofwhattheywant，thesupplycalledforthbythedemandofthemarketwillbeanythingbutwhatisreallyrequired。Nowanywell—intentionedandtolerablycivilizedgovernmentmaythink，withoutpresumption，thatitdoesoroughttopossessadegreeofcultivationabovetheaverageofthecommunitywhichitrules，andthatitshouldthereforebecapableofofferingbettereducationandbetterinstructiontothepeople，thanthegreaternumberofthemwouldspontaneouslydemand。Education，therefore，isoneofthosethingswhichitisadmissibleinprinciplethatagovernmentshouldprovideforthepeople。Thecaseisonetowhichthereasonsofthenon。interferenceprincipledonotnecessarilyoruniversallyextend。（5*）
Withregardtoelementaryeducation，theexceptiontoordinaryrulesmay，Iconceive，justifiablybecarriedstillfurther。Therearecertainprimaryelementsandmeansofknowledge，whichitisinthehighestdegreedesirablethatallhumanbeingsbornintothecommunityshouldacquireduringchildhood。Iftheirparents，orthoseonwhomtheydepend，havethepowerofobtainingforthemthisinstruction，andfailtodoit，theycommitadoublebreachofduty，towardsthechildrenthemselves，andtowardsthemembersofthecommunitygenerally，whoareallliabletosufferseriouslyfromtheConsequencesofignoranceandwantofeducationintheirfellow—citizens。Itisthereforeanallowableexerciseofthepowersofgovernment，toimposeonparentsthelegalobligationofgivingelementaryinstructiontochildren。This，however，cannotfairlybedone，withouttakingmeasurestoinsurethatsuchinstructionshallbealwaysaccessibletothem，eithergratuitouslyoratatriflingexpense。