Notes:
[1]"Collectiondeséconomistes，"II。832。SeeatabularstatementbyBeaudan。
[2]"Ephéméridesducitoyen，"IX。15；anarticlebyM。deButré，1767。
[3]"Collectiondeséconomistes，"I。551，562。
[4]"Procès—verbauxdel’assembléeprovincialedeChampagne"
（1787），p。240。
[5]Cf。，"NoticehistoriquesurlaRévolutiondansledépartementdel’Eure，"byBoivin—Champeaux，p。37。—AregisterofgrievancesoftheparishofEpreville；on100francsincometheTreasurytakes22forthetaille，16forcollaterals，15forthepoll—tax，11forthevingtièmes，total67livres。
[6]"Procès—verbauxdel’assembléeprovincialedeIle—de—France（1787），p。131。
[7]"Procèx—verbauxdel’ass。provdelaHaute—Guyenne"（1784），II。
17，40，47。
[8]"Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。d’Auvergne"（1787），p。253。—
Doléances，byGautierdeBiauzat，memberofthecouncilelectedbytheprovincialassemblyofAuvergne。（1788），p。3。
[9]Seenote5attheendofthevolume。
[10]"ThérondeMontaugé，"p。109（1763）。Wagesatthistimearefrom7to12sousadayduringthesummer。
[11]Archivesnationales，procès—verbauxandregistersoftheStates—General，V。59，p。6。MemorandumtoM。NeckerfromM。d’Orgeux，honorarycouncilortotheParliamentofBourgogne，25Oct。1788……
[12]Ibid。H，1418。AletteroftheintendantofLimoges，Feb。26，1784。
[13]Turgot，II。259。
[14]Archivesnationales，H，426（remonstrancesoftheParliamentofBrittany，Feb。1783）。
[15]Mercier；XI。59；X。262。
[16]Archivesnationales，H，1422，aletterbyMd’Aine，intendantofLimoges（February17，1782）onebytheintendantofMoulins（April，1779）；thetrialofthecommunityofMollon（Bordelais），andthetablesofitscollectors。
[17]"Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。d’Auvergne，"p。266。
[18]AlbertBabeau，"HistoiredeTroyes，"I。72
[19]"Procés—verbauxdel’ass。prov。deBerry"（1778），I。pp。72，80。
[20]DeTocqueville，187。
[21]Archivesnationales，H，1417。（AletterofM。deCypièrre，intendantatOrleans，April17，1765）。
[22]"TraitédePopulation，"2dpart，p。26。
[23]Archivesnationales，H，1417。（AletterofM。deCypièrre，intendantatOrleans，April17，1765）。
[24]Ibid。H，1418。（LetterofMay28，1784）。
[25]Ibid。（LetteroftheintendantofTours，June15，1765。）
[26]ArchivesNationales，H，1417。AreportbyRaudon，receiveroftaillesintheelectionofLaon，January，1764。
[27]"Procèx—verbauxdel’ass。prov。deBerry"（1778），I。p。72。
[28]Champfort，93。
[29]"Procèx—verbauxdel’ass。prov。deBerry，"I。77。
[30]ArthurYoung，II。205。
[31]"Procès—verbauxoftheass。prov。ofthegeneralshipofRouen"
（1787），p。271。
[32]Letrosne（1779）。"Del’administrationprovincialeetdeIareformedel’imp？t，"pp。39to262and138。—Archivesnationales，H。
138（1782）。CahierdeBugey，"Saltcostsapersonlivinginthecountrysidepurchasingitfromtheretailersfrom15to17sousapound，accordingtothewayofmeasuringit。
[33]Floquet，VI。367（May10，1760）。
[34]Boivin—Champeaux，p。44。（CahiersofBrayandofGamaches）。
[35]ArthurYoung，II。175—178。
[36]Archivesnationales，G，300；G，319。（RegistersandinstructionsofvariouslocaldirectorsoftheExcisetotheirsuccessors）。
[37]Letrosne，ibid。523。
[38]Octroi:atollortaxleviedatthegatesofacityonarticlesbroughtin。（SR。）
[39]ArchivesNationales，H，426（PapersoftheParliamentofBrittany，February，1783）。
[40]"Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。deSoissonnais"（1787），p。45。
—Archivesnationales，H，1515（RemonstrancesoftheParliamentofMetz，1768）。Theclassofindigentsformmorethantwelve—thirteenthsofthewholenumberofvillagesoflaborersandgenerallythoseofthewine—growers。"Ibid。G，319（TableaudesdirectionsofChateaudonandIssoudun），[41]AlbertBabeau，I。89。p。21。
[42]"Mémoires，"presentedtotheAssemblyofNotables，byM。deCalonne（1787），p。67。
[43]Hereweareattherootofthereasonwhydemocraticallyelectedpoliticiansandtheiradministrativestaffsaretodaytaxedeventhoughsuchtaxationisonlyapaper—exerciseaddingcoststothecostofgovernmentadministration。（SR。）
[44]GautierdeBianzat，"Doléances，"193，225。"Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。dePoitou"（1787），p。99。
[45]GautierdeBianzat，ibid……
[46]Archivesnationales，theprocès—verbauxandcahiersoftheStates—General，V。59。P。6。（LetterofM。OrgeuxtoM。Necker），V。
27。p。560—573。（CahiersoftheThird—EstateofArnay—le—Duc）
[47]Inthesefigurestheriseofthemoneystandardhasbeenkeptinmind，thesilver"marc，"worth59francsin1965，beingworth49
francsduringthelasthalfoftheeighteenthcentury。
[48]"Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。deIle—de—France，"132，158；
del’Orléanais，96，387。
[49]"Mémoire，"presentedtotheAssemblyofNotables（1787），p。1。
—Seenote2attheendofthevolume，ontheestateofBlet。
[50]"Procès—verbeauxdel’ass。prov。d’Alsace"（1787），p。116；"—
ofChampagne，"192。（AccordingtoadeclarationofJune2，1787，thetaxsubstitutedforthecorvéemaybeextendedtoone—sixthofthetaille，withaccessorytaxesandthepoll—taxcombined）。"Delagénéralitéd’Alen？con，"179；"—duBerry，"I。218。
[51]Archivesnationales，G，322（MemorandumontheexciseduesofCompiègneanditsneighborhood，1786）
[52]"Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。del’Ile—de—France，"p。104。
[53]"Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。deBerry，I。85，II。91。"—
del’Orléanais，p。225。""Arbitrariness，injustice，inequality，areinseparablefromthetaillewhenanychangeofcollectortakesplace。"
[54]"ArchivesNationales，"H。615。LetterofM。deLagourda，anoblefromBretagne，toM。Necker，datedDecember4，1780:"Youarealwaystaxingtheusefulandnecessarypeoplewhodecreaseinnumbersallthetime:thesearetheworkersoftheland。Thecountrysidehasbecomedesertedandnoonewillanylongerplowtheland。ItestifytoGodandtoyou，Sir，thatwehavelostmorethanathirdofourbuddingwheatofthelastharvestbecausewedidnothavethenecessaryman—powerdotothework。"
[55]Ibid。1149。（letterofM。deReverseau，March16，1781）；H，200（letterofM。Amelot，Nov。2，1784）。
[56]"Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。delagénéralitedeRouen，"
p。91。
[57]Hippeau，VI。22（1788）。
[58]D’Argenson。VI。37。
[59]Archivesnationales，H。200（MemoirofM。Amelot，1785）。
[60]Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。d’Auvergne，"253。
[61]Boivin—Champeaux，"DoléancesdelaparvissedeTilleul—
Lambert"（Eure）。"Numbersofprivilegedcharacters，Messieursoftheelections，Messieursthepost—masters，Messieursthepresidentsandotherattachésofthesalt—warehouse，everyindividualpossessingextensivepropertypaysbutathirdorahalfofthetaxestheyoughttopay。"
[62]DeTocqueville，385。—"Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。deLyonnais，"p。56
[63]Archivesnationales，H，1422。（LettersofM。d’Aine，intendant，alsoofthereceiverfortheelectionofTulle，February23，1783）。
[64]DeTocqueville，64，363。
[65]Archivesnationales，H，612，614。（LettersofM。delaBove，September11，andDec。2，1774；June28，1777）。
[66]Mercier，II。62。
[67]"Grievances"oftheparishofAubervilliers。
[68]Archivesnationales，G，300；G，322（"Mémoires"ontheexciseduties）。
[69]"Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。desTrois—Evêchésp。442。
[70]Archivesnationales，H，1422（LetteroftheintendantofMoulins，April1779）。
[71]Archivesnationales，H。1312（LettersofM。D’Anthemanprocureur—généraloftheexcisecourt（May19，1783），andoftheArchbishopofAix（June15，1783）。）—Provenceproducedwheatonlysufficientforsevenandahalfmonths’consumption。
[72]Abbreviationforthe"cahierdesdoléances"，inEnglish’registerofgrieviances’，broughtwiththembytherepresentativesofthepeopletothegreatgatheringinParisofthe"States—Généraux"in1789。（SR。）
[73]Thefeudalduesmaybeestimatedataseventhofthenetincomeandthedimealsoataseventh。Thesearethefiguresgivenbytheass。prov。ofHaute—Guyenne（Procès—verbaux，p。47）。—Isolatedinstances，inotherprovinces，indicatesimilarresults。Thedimerangesfromatenthtothethirteenthofthegrossproduct，andcommonlythetenth。Iregardtheaverageasaboutthefourteenth，andasone—halfofthegrossproductmusthedeductedforexpensesofcultivation，itamountstoone—seventh。Letrosnesaysafifthandevenaquarter。
[74]Boivin—Champeaux，72。
[75]GrievancesofthecommunityofCulmon（ElectiondeLangres。）
[76]Boivin—Champeaux，34，36，41，48。—Périn（"Doléancesdesparoissesruralesdel’Artuis，"301，308）。—Archivesnationales，procès—verbauxandcahiersoftheStates—Géneraux，vol。XVII。P。12
（LetteroftheinhabitantsofDracy—leViteux）。
[77]Motte:amoundindicativeofSeigniorialdominion；quevaise；
therightofforcingaresidenttoremainonhispropertyunderpenaltyofforfeiture；domainecongéable；propertyheldsubjecttocapriciousejection。（TR）
[78]Prud’homme，"Résumédescahiers，"III。passim，andespeciallyfrom317to340。
CHAPTERIII。INTELLECTUALSTATEOFTHEPEOPLE。
I。
Intellectualincapacity。—Howideasaretransformedintomarvelousstories。
Tocomprehendtheiractionsweoughtnowtolookintotheconditionoftheirminds，toknowthecurrenttrainoftheirideas，theirmodeofthinking。Butisitreallyessentialtodrawthisportrait，andarenotthedetailsoftheirmentalconditionwehavejustpresentedsufficient？Weshallobtainaknowledgeofthemlater，andthroughtheiractions，when，inTouraine，theyknockamayorandhisassistant，chosenbythemselves，senselesswithkicksfromtheirwoodenshoes，because，inobeyingthenationalAssembly，thesetwounfortunatemenpreparedatableoftaxes；orwhenatTroyes，theydragthroughthestreetsandteartopiecesthevenerablemagistratewhowasnourishingthematthatverymoment，andwhohadjustdictatedhistestamentintheirfavor。—Takethestillrudebrainofacontemporarypeasantanddepriveitoftheideaswhich，foreightyyearspast，haveentereditbysomanychannels，throughtheprimaryschoolofeachvillage，throughthereturnhomeoftheconscriptaftersevenyears’service，throughtheprodigiousmultiplicationofbooks，newspapers，roads，railroads，foreigntravelandeveryotherspeciesofcommunication。[1]Trytoimaginethepeasantoftheeighteenthcentury，pennedandshutupfromfathertosoninhishamlet，withoutparishhighways，deprivedofnews，withnoinstructionbuttheSundaysermon，continuouslyworryingabouthisdailybreadandthetaxes，"withhiswretched，dried—upaspect，"[2]notdaringtorepairhishouse，alwayspersecuted，distrustful，hismindcontractedandstinted，sotosay，bymisery。Hisconditionisalmostthatofhisoxorhisass，whilehisideasarethoseofhiscondition。Hehasbeenalongtimestolid；"helackseveninstinct，"[3]mechanicallyandfixedlyregardingthegroundonwhichhedragsalonghishereditaryplow。In1751，d’Argensonwroteinhisjournal:
"nothinginthenewsfromthecourtaffectsthem；thereignisindifferenttothem……thedistancebetweenthecapitalandtheprovincedailywidens……HeretheyareignorantofthestrikingoccurrencesthatmostimpressedusatParis……Theinhabitantsofthecountrysidearemerelypoverty—strickenslaves，draftcattleunderayoke，movingonastheyaregoaded，caringfornothingandembarrassedbynothing，providedtheycaneatandsleepatregularhours。"
Theymakenocomplaints，"theydonotevendreamofcomplaining；"[4]theirwretchednessseemstothemnaturallikewinterorhail。Theirminds，liketheiragriculture，stillbelongtothemiddleages。—IntheenvironmentofToulouse，[5]toascertainwhocommittedarobbery，tocureamanorasickanimal，theyresorttoasorcerer，whodivinesthisbymeansofasieve。Thecountrymanfullybelievesinghostsand，onAllSaints’eve，helaystheclothforthedead。—InAuvergne，attheoutbreaktheRevolution，onacontagiousfevermakingitsappearance，M。deMontlosier，declaredtobeasorcerer，isthecauseofit，andtwohundredmenassembletogethertodemolishhisdwelling。Theirreligiousbeliefisonthesamelevel。[6]
"Theirpriestsdrinkwiththemandsellthemabsolution。OnSundays，atthesermon，theyputuplieutenanciesandsub—lieutenancies（amongthesaints）forsale:somuchforalieutenant’splaceunderSt。
Peter！—Ifthepeasanthesitatesinhisbid，aneulogyofSt。Peteratoncebegins，andthenourpeasantsrunitupfastenough。"—Tointellectsinaprimitivestate，barrenofideasandcrowdedwithimages，idolsonearthareasessentialasidolsinheaven。"Nodoubtwhateverexistedinmymind，"saysRétitdelaBretonne，[7]"ofthepowerofthekingtocompelanymantobestowhiswifeordaughteronme，andmyvillage（Sacy，inBurgundy）thoughtasIdid。"[8]Thereisnoroominmindsofthisdescriptionforabstractconceptions，foranyideaofsocialorder；theyaresubmissivetoitandthatisall。"Themassofthepeople，"writesGovernorin1789，"havenoreligionbutthatoftheirpriests，nolawbutthatofthoseabovethem，nomoralitybutthatofself—interest；thesearethebeingswho，ledonbydrunkencurates，arenowonthehighroadtoliberty，andthefirstusetheymakeofitistorebelonallsidesbecausethereisdearth。"[9]
Howcouldthingsbeotherwise？Everyidea，previoustotakingrootintheirbrain，mustpossessalegendaryform，asabsurdasitissimple，adaptedtotheirexperiences，theirfaculties，theirfearsandtheiraspirations。Onceplantedinthisuncultivatedandfertilesoilitvegetatesandbecomestransformed，developingintogrossexcrescences，somberfoliageandpoisonousfruit。Themoremonstrousthegreateritsvigor，clingingtotheslightestofprobabilitiesandtenaciousagainstthemostcertainofdemonstrations。UnderLouisXV，inanarrestofvagabonds，afewchildrenhavingbeencarriedoffwillfullyorbymistake，therumorspreadsthatthekingtakesbathsinbloodtorestorehisexhaustedfunctions，and，sotruedoesthisseemtobe，thewomen，horrifiedthroughtheirmaternalinstincts，joinintheriot；apolicemanisseizedandknockeddown，and，onhisdemandingaconfessor，awomaninthecrowd，pickingupastone，criesoutthathemustnothavetimetogotoheaven，andsmasheshisheadwithit，believingthatsheisperforminganactofjustice[10]。UnderLouisXVIevidenceispresentedtothepeoplethatthereisnoscarcity:in1789，[11]anofficer，listeningtotheconversationofhissoldiers，hearsthemstate"withfullbeliefthattheprincesandcourtiers，withaviewtostarveParisout，arethrowingflourintotheSeine。"Turningtoaquarter—masterheaskshimhowhecanpossiblybelievesuchanabsurdstory。"Lieutenant，"hereplies，"’tistime—thebagsweretiedwithbluestrings（cordonsbleus）。"Tothemthisisasufficientreason，andnoargumentcouldconvincethemtothecontrary。Thus，amongthedregsofsociety，foulandhorribleromancesareforged，inconnectionthefamineandtheBastille，inwhichLouisXVI。，thequeenMarieAntoinette，theComted’Artois，MadamedeLamballe，thePolignacs，therevenuefarmers，theseigniorsandladiesofhighrankareportrayedasvampiresandghouls。Ihaveseenmanyeditionsoftheseinthepamphletsoftheday，intheengravingsnotexhibited，andamongpopularprintsandillustrations，thelatterthemosteffective，sincetheyappealtotheeye。TheysurpassthestoriesofMandrin[12]andCartouche，beingexactlysuitableformenwhoseliteratureconsistsofthepopularlamentsofMandrinandCartouche。
II。
Politicalincapacity。—Interpretationofpoliticalrumorsandofgovernmentaction。
Bythiswecanjudgeoftheirpoliticalintelligence。Everyobjectappearstotheminafalselight；theyarelikechildrenwho，ateachturnoftheroad，seeineachtreeorbushsomefrightfulhobgoblin。ArthurYoung，onvisitingthespringsnearClermont，isarrested，[13]andthepeoplewanttoimprisonawoman，hisguide，someofthebystandersregardinghimasan"agentoftheQueen，whointendedtoblowthetownupwithamine，andsendallthatescapedtothegalleys。"Sixdaysafterthis，beyondPuy，andnotwithstandinghispassport，thevillageguardcomeandtakehimoutofbedateleveno’clockatnights，declaringthat"IwasundoubtedlyaconspiratorwiththeQueen，theCountd’ArtoisandtheCountd’Entragues（whohaspropertyhere），whohademployedmeasarpenteurtomeasuretheirfieldsinordertodoubletheirtaxes。"Weheretaketheunconscious，apprehensive，popularimaginationintheact；aslightindication，aword，promptingtheconstructionofeitheraircastlesorfantasticdungeons，andseeingtheseasplainlyasiftheyweresomanysubstantialrealities。Theyhavenottheinwardresourcesthatrendercapableofseparatinganddiscerning；theirconceptionsareformedinalump；bothobjectandfancyappeartogetherandareunitedinonesingleperception。AtthemomentofelectingdeputiesthereportiscurrentinProvince[14]that"thebestofkingsdesiresperfectequality，thattherearetobenomorebishops，norseigniors，nortithes，norseigniorialdues，nomoretithesordistinctions，nomorehuntingorfishingrights，……thatthepeoplearetobewhollyrelievedoftaxation，andthatthefirsttwoordersalonearetoprovidetheexpensesofthegovernment。"Whereuponfortyorfiftyriotstakeplaceinoneday。"Severalcommunitiesrefusetomakeanypaymentstotheirtreasureroutsideofroyalrequisitions。"Othersdobetter:"onpillagingthestrong—boxofthereceiverofthetaxonleatheratBrignolles，theyshoutoutViveleRoi！""Thepeasantconstantlyassertshispillageanddestructiontobeinconformitywiththeking’swill。"Alittlelater，inAuvergne，thepeasantswhoburncastlesaretodisplay"muchrepugnance"inthusmaltreating"suchkindseigniors，"buttheyallege"imperativeorders，havingbeenadvisedthatthekingwishedit。"[15]AtLyons，whenthetapstersofthetownandthepeasantsoftheneighborhoodtramplethecustomsofficialsunderfoottheybelievethatthekinghassuspendedallcustomsduesforthreedays。[16]Thescopeoftheirimaginationisproportionatetotheirshortsightedness。"Bread，nomorerents，nomoretaxes！"isthesolecry，thecryofwant，whileexasperatedwantplungesaheadlikeafamishedbull。Downwiththemonopolist！—
storehousesareforcedopen，convoysofgrainarestopped，marketsarepillaged，bakersarehung，andthepriceofbreadisfixedsothatnoneistobehadorisconcealed。Downwiththeoctroi！—
barriersaredemolished，clerksarebeaten，moneyiswantinginthetownsforurgentexpenses。Burntaxregistries，account—books，municipalarchives，seigniors’charter—safes，conventparchments，everydetestabledocumentcreativeofdebtorsandsufferers！Thevillageitselfisnolongerabletopreserveitsparishproperty。Therageagainstanywrittendocument，againstpublicofficers，againstanymanmoreorlessconnectedwithgrain，isblindanddetermined。
Thefuriousanimaldestroysall，althoughwoundinghimself，drivingandroaringagainsttheobstaclethatoughttobeoutflanked。
III。
Destructiveimpulses。—Theobjectofblindrage。—Distrustofnaturalleaders。—Suspicionofthemchangedintohatred。—
Dispositionofthepeoplein1789。
Thisowingtotheabsenceofleadersandintheabsenceoforganization，amobissimplyaherd。Itsmistrustofitsnaturalleaders，ofthegreat，ofthewealthy，ofpersonsinofficeandclothedwithauthority，isinveterateandincurable。Vainlydothesewishitwellanddoitgood；ithasnofaithintheirhumanityordisinterestedness。Ithasbeentoodown—trodden；itentertainsprejudicesagainsteverymeasureproceedingfromthem，eventhemostliberalandthemostbeneficial。"Atthemerementionofthenewassemblies，"saysaprovincialcommissionin1787，[17]"weheardaworkmanexclaim，’What，morenewextortioners！’"Superiorsofeverykindaresuspected，andfromsuspiciontohostilitytheroadisnotlong。In1788[18]Mercierdeclaresthat"insubordinationhasbeenmanifestforsomeyears，especiallyamongthetrades……Formerly，onenteringaprinting—officethementookofftheirhats。Nowtheycontentthemselveswithstaringandleeringatyou；scarcelyhaveyoucrossedthresholdwhenyouyourselfmorelightlyspokenofthanifyouwereoneofthem。"ThesameattitudeistakenbythepeasantsintheenvironmentofParis；MadameVigée—Lebrun，[19]ongoingtoRomainvilletovisitMarshaldeSégur，remarks:"Notonlydotheynotremovetheirhatsbuttheyregardusinsolently；someofthemeventhreateneduswithclubs。"InMarchandAprilfollowingthis，herguestsarriveatherconcertinconsternation。"Inthemorning，atthepromenadeofLongchamps，thepopulace，assembledatthebarrierofl’Etoile，insultedthepeoplepassingbyincarriagesinthegrossestmanner；
someofthewretchesonthefootstepsexclaiming:’Nextyearyoushallbebehindthecarriageandweinside。’"Atthecloseoftheyear1788，thestreambecomesatorrentandthetorrentacataract。Anintendant[20]writesthat，inhisprovince，thegovernmentmustdecide，andinthepopularsense，toseparatefromprivilegedclasses，abandonoldformsandgivetheThird—Estateadoublevote。Theclergyandthenoblesaredetested，andtheirsupremacyisayoke。"LastJuly，"hesays，"theoldStates—Generalwouldhavebeenreceivedwithpleasureandtherewouldhavebeenfewobstaclestoitsformation。
Duringthepastfivemonthsmindshavebecomeenlightened；respectiveinterestshavebeendiscussed，andleaguesformed。YouhavebeenkeptinignoranceofthefermentationwhichisatitsheightamongallclassesoftheThird—Estate，andasparkwillkindletheconflagration。Iftheking’sdecisionshouldbefavorabletothefirsttwoordersageneralinsurrectionwilloccurthroughouttheprovinces，600，000meninarmsandthehorrorsoftheJacquerie。"Thewordisspokenandtherealityiscoming。Aninsurrectionarymultituderejectingitsnaturalleadersmustelectorsubmittoothers。Itislikeanarmywhich，enteringonacampaign，findingitselfwithoutofficers；thevacanciesarefortheboldest，mostviolent，thosemostoppressedbythepreviousrule，andwho，leadingtheadvance，shouting"forward"andthusformtheleadinggroups。In1789，thebandsareready；for，belowthesufferingpeoplethereisyetanotherpeoplewhichsuffersyetmore，whoseinsurrectionispermanent，andwhich，repressed，persecuted，andobscure，onlyawaitsanopportunitytocomeoutofitshiding—placeandopenlygivetheirpassionsfreevent。
IV。
Insurrectionaryleadersandrecruits。—Poachers。—Smugglersanddealersincontrabandsalt。—Bandits。—Beggarsandvagabonds。—
Adventofbrigands。—ThepeopleofParis。
Vagrants，recalcitrantsofallkinds，fugitivesofthelaworthepolice，beggars，cripples，foul，filthy，haggardandsavage，theyarebredbythesocialinjusticeofthesystem，andaroundeveryoneofthesocialwoundstheseswarmlikevermin。—Fourhundredcaptainciesprotectsvastquantitiesofgamefeedingonthecropsundertheeyesofownersoftheland，transformingtheseintothousandsofpoachers，themoredangeroussincetheyarearmed，anddefythemostterriblelaws。Alreadyin1752[21]areseenaroundParis"gatheringsoffiftyorsixty，allfullyarmedandactingasifonregularforagingcampaigns，withtheinfantryatthecenterandthecavalryonthewings……Theyliveintheforestswheretheyhavecreatedafortifiedandguardedareaandpayingexactlyforwhattheytaketoliveon。"In1777[22]，atSensinBurgundy，thepublicattorney，M。Terray，huntingonhisownpropertywithtwoofficers，meetsagangofpoacherswhofireonthegameundertheireyes，andsoonafterwardsfireonthem。Terrayiswoundedandoneoftheofficershashiscoatpierced；guardsarrive，butthepoachersstandfirmandrepelthem；dragoonsaresentforandthepoacherskillofthese，alongwiththreehorses，andareattackedwithsabers；fourofthemarebroughttothegroundandsevenarecaptured。—ReportsoftheStates—Generalshowthateveryyear，ineachextensiveforest，murdersoccur，sometimesatthehandsofapoacher，andagain，andthemostfrequently，bytheshotofagamekeeper。—Itisacontinuouswarfareathome；everyvastdomainthusharborsitsrebels，providedwithpowderandballandknowinghowtousethem。
Otherrecruitsforriotingarefoundamongsmugglersandindealersincontrabandsalt[23]。Atax，assoonasitbecomesexorbitant，invitesfraud，andraisesupapopulationofdelinquentsagainstitsarmyofclerks。Thenumberofsuchdefraudersmaybeseenwhenweconsiderthenumberofcustomofficers:twelvehundredleaguesofinteriorcustomdistrictsareguardedby50，000men，ofwhich23，000aresoldiersinciviliandress[24]。"Intheprincipalprovincesofthesalt—taxandintheprovincesofthefivegreattaxleasingadministrations（fermes），forfourleagues（tenmiles）oneithersideoftheprohibitedline，"cultivationisabandoned；everybodyiseitheracustomsofficialorasmuggler[25]。Themoreexcessivethetaxthehigherthepremiumofferedtotheviolatorsofthelaw；ateveryplaceontheboundariesofBrittanywithNormandy，MaineandAnjou，fourpenceperpoundaddedtothesalt—taxmultipliesbeyondanyconceptionthealreadyenormousnumberofcontrabanddealers。"Numerousbandsofmen，[26]armedwithfrettes，orlongstickspointedwithiron，andoftenwithpistolsorguns，attempttoforceapassage。"Amultitudeofwomenandofchildren，quiteyoung，crossthebrigadesboundariesor，ontheotherside，troopsofdogsarebroughtthere，keptclosedupforacertaintimewithoutfoodordrink，thenloadedwithsaltandnowturnedloosesothatthey，drivenbyhunger，immediatelybringtheircargobacktotheirmasters。"—Vagabonds，outlaws，thefamished，sniffthislucrativeoccupationfromafarandruntoitlikesomanypacksofhounds。"TheoutskirtsofBrittanyarefilledwithapopulationofemigrants，mostlyoutcastfromtheirowndistricts，who，afterayear’sregisteredstay，mayenjoytheprivilegesoftheBretons:theiroccupationislimitedtocollectingpilesofsalttore—selltothecontrabanddealers。"Wemightimaginethem，asinaflashoflightening，asalonglineofrestlessnomads，nocturnalandpursued，anentiretribe，maleandfemale，ofunsociableprowlers，familiarwithtounderhandtricks，toughenedbyhardweather，ragged，"nearlyallinfectedbypersistentscabies，"andIfindsimilarbodiesinthevicinityofMorlaix，Lorient，andotherportsonthefrontiersofotherprovincesandonthefrontiersofthekingdom。From1783to1787，inQuercy，twoalliedbandsofsmugglers，sixtyandeightyeach，defraudtherevenueof40，000oftobacco，killtwocustomsofficers，and，withtheirguns，defendtheirstoresinthemountains；tosuppressthemsoldiersareneeded，whichtheirmilitarycommanderwillnotfurnish。In1789，[27]alargetroopofsmugglerscarryonoperationspermanentlyonthefrontiersofMaineandAnjou；themilitarycommanderwritesthat"theirchiefisanintelligentandformidablebandit，whoalreadyhasunderhimfifty—fivemen，hewill，duetomiseryandrebellionsoonhaveacorps；"itwould，asweareunabletotakehimbyforce，bebest，ifsomeofhismencouldbeturnedandmadetohandhimovertous。Thesearethemeansresortedtoinregionswherebrigandageisendemic。—Here，indeed，asinCalabria，thepeopleareonthesideofthebrigandsagainstthegendarmes。TheexploitsofMandrinin1754，[28]mayberemembered:hiscompanyofsixtymenwhobringincontrabandgoodsandransomonlytheclerks，hisexpedition，lastingnearlyayear，acrossFranche—Comté，Lyonnais，Bourbonnais，AuvergneandBurgundy，thetwenty—seventownsheentersmakingnoresistance，deliveringprisonersandmakingsaleofhismerchandise。ToovercomehimacamphadtobeformedatValanceand2，000mensentagainsthim；hewastakenthroughtreachery，andstillatthepresentdaycertainfamiliesareproudoftheirrelationshiptohim，declaringhimaliberator。—Nosymptomismorealarming:ontheenemiesofthelawbeingpreferredbythepeopletoitsdefenders，societydisintegratesandthewormsbegintowork。—
Addtothesetheveritablebrigands，assassinsandrobbers。"In1782，[29]theprovost’scourtofMontargisisengagedonthetrialofHulinandtwohundredofhisaccompliceswho，fortenyears，bymeansofjointenterprises，havedesolatedaportionofthekingdom。"—
MercierenumeratesinFrance"anarmyofmorethan10，000brigandsandvagabonds"againstwhichthepolice，composedof3，756men，isalwaysonthemarch。"Complaintsaredailymade，"saystheprovincialassemblyofHaute—Guyenne，"thatthereisnopoliceinthecountry。"
Theabsenteeseigniorpaysnoattentiontothismatter；hisjudgesandofficialstakegoodcarenottooperategratuitouslyagainstaninsolventcriminal，theresultisthat"hisestatesbecometherefugeofalltherascalsofthearea。"[30]—Everyabusethuscarrieswithitarisk，bothduetomisplacedcarelessnessaswellasexcessiverigor，torelaxedfeudalismaswellastoharshmonarchy。Alltheinstitutionsappeartoworktogethertobreedandortoleratethetroublemakers，preparing，outsidethesocialdefenses，themenofactionwhowillcarryitbystorm。
Butthetotaleffectofallthisisyetmoredamaging，for，outofthevastnumbersofworkersitruinsitformsbeggarsunwillingtowork，dangeroussluggardsgoingaboutbeggingandextortingbreadfrompeasantswhohavenottoomuchforthemselves。"Thevagabondsaboutthecountry，"saysLetrosne，[31]"areaterriblepest；theyarelikeanenemy’sforcewhich，distributedovertheterritory，obtainsalivingasitpleases，levyingveritablecontributions……Theyareconstantlyrovingaroundthecountry，examiningtheapproachestohouses，andinformingthemselvesabouttheirinmatesandoftheirhabits。—Woetothosesupposedtohavemoney！……Whatnumbersofhighwayrobberiesandwhatburglaries！Whatnumbersoftravelersassassinated，andhousesanddoorsbrokeninto！Whatassassinationsofcurates，farmersandwidows，tormentedtodiscovermoneyandafterwardskilled！Twenty—fiveyearsanterior（page384/284）totheRevolutionitwasnotinfrequenttoseefifteenortwentyofthese"invadeafarm—housetosleepthere，intimidatingthefarmersandexactingwhatevertheypleased。"In1764，thegovernmenttakesmeasuresagainstthemwhichindicatethemagnitudeoftheevil[32]。
"Areheldtobevagabondsandvagrants，andcondemnedassuch，thosewho，foraprecedingtermofsixmonths，shallhaveexercisednotradeorprofession，andwho，havingnooccupationormeansofsubsistence，canprocurenopersonsworthyofconfidencetoattestandverifytheirhabitsandmodeoflife……TheintentofHisMajestyisnotmerelytoarrestvagabondstraversingthecountrybut，again，allmendicantswhatsoeverwho，withoutoccupations，mayberegardedassuspectedofvagabondage。"
Thepenaltyforable—bodiedmenisthreeyearsinthegalleys；incaseofasecondconviction，nineyears；andforathird，imprisonmentforlife。Undertheageofsixteen，theyareputinaninstitution。"A
mendicantwhohasmadehimselfliabletoarrestbythepolice，"saysthecircular，"isnottobereleasedexceptunderthemostpositiveassurancethathewillnolongerbeg；thiscoursewillbefollowedonlyincaseofpersonsworthyofconfidenceandsolventguaranteeingthemendicant，andengagingtoprovidehimwithemploymentortosupporthim，andtheyshallindicatethemeansbywhichtheyaretopreventhimfrombegging。"Thisbeingfurnished，thespecialauthorizationoftheintendantmustbeobtainedinaddition。Byvirtueofthislaw，50，000beggarsaresaidtohavebeenarrestedatonce，and，astheordinaryhospitalsandprisonswerenotlargeenoughtocontainthem，jailshadtobeconstructed。Uptotheendoftheancientrégimethismeasureiscarriedoutwithoccasionalintermissions:inLanguedoc，in1768，arrestswerestillmadeof433
insixmonths，and，in1785，205infourmonths[33]。Alittlebeforethistime300wereconfinedinthedepotofBesan？on，500inthatofRennesand650inthatofSaintDenis。Itcostthekingamillionayeartosupportthem，andGodknowshowtheywerebeddedandfed！
Water，straw，bread，andtwoouncesofsaltedgrease，thewholeatanexpenseoffivesousaday；and，asthepriceofprovisionsfortwentyyearsbackhadincreasedmorethanathird，thekeeperwhohadtheminchargewasobligedtomakethemfastorruinhimself。—Withrespecttothemodeoffillingthedepots，thepoliceareTurksintheirtreatmentofthelowerclass；theystrikeintotheheap，theirbroombruisingasmanyastheysweepout。Accordingtotheordinanceof1778，writesanintendant，[34]
"thepolicemustarrestnotonlybeggarsandvagabondswhomtheyencounterbut，again，thosedenouncedassuchorassuspectedpersons。
Thecitizen，themostirreproachableinhisconductandtheleastopentosuspicionofvagabondage，isnotsureofnotbeingshutupinthedepot，ashisfreedomdependsonapolicemanwhoisconstantlyliabletobedeceivedbyafalsedenunciationorcorruptedbyabribe。IhaveseeninthedepotatRennesseveralhusbandsarrestedsolelythroughthedenunciationoftheirwives，andasmanywomenthroughthatoftheirhusbands；severalchildrenbythefirstwifeatthesolicitationoftheirstep—mothers；manyfemaledomesticspregnantbythemasterstheyserved，shutupattheirinstigation，andgirlsinthesamesituationattheinstanceoftheirseducers；childrendenouncedbytheirfathers，andfathersdenouncedbytheirchildren；allwithouttheslightestevidenceofvagabondageormendicity……Nodecisionoftheprovost’scourtexistsrestoringtheincarceratedtotheirliberty，notwithstandingtheinfinitenumberarrestedunjustly。"
Supposethatahumanintendant，likethisone，setsthematliberty:theretheyareinthestreets，withoutapenny，beggarsthroughtheactionofalawwhichproscribesmendicityandwhichaddstothewretcheditprosecutesthewretcheditcreates，stillmoreembitteredandcorruptinbodyandinsoul。
"Itnearlyalwayshappens，"saysthesameintendant，"thattheprisoners，arrestedtwenty—fiveorthirtyleaguesfromthedepot，arenotconfinedthereuntilthreeorfourmonthsaftertheirarrest，andsometimeslonger。Meanwhile，theyaretransferredfrombrigadetobrigade，intheprisonsfoundalongtheroad，wheretheyremainuntilthenumberincreasessufficientlytoformaconvoy。Menandwomenareconfinedinthesameprison，theresultofwhichis，thefemalesnotpregnantonenteringitarealwayssoontheirarrivalatthedepot。
Theprisonsaregenerallyunhealthy；frequently，themajorityoftheprisonersaresickonleavingit；"
andmanybecomerascalsoncomingincontactwithrascals。—Moralcontagionandphysicalcontagion，theulcerthusincreasingthroughtheremedy，centersofrepressionbecomingcentersofcorruption。
Andyetwithallitsrigorsthelawdoesnotattainitsends。
"Ourtowns，"saystheparliamentofBrittany，[35]"aresofilledwithbeggarsitseemsasifthemeasurestakentosuppressmendicityonlyincreaseit。"—"Theprincipalhighways，"writestheintendant，"areinfestedwithdangerousvagabondsandvagrants，actualbeggars，whichthepolicedonotarrest，eitherthroughnegligenceorbecausetheirinterferenceisnotprovokedbyspecialsolicitations。"
Whatwouldbedonewiththemiftheywerearrested？Theyaretoomany，andthereisnoplacetoputthem。And，moreover，howpreventpeoplewholiveonalmsfromdemandingalms？Theeffect，undoubtedly，islamentablebutinevitable。Poverty，toacertainextent，isaslowgangreneinwhichthemorbidpartsconsumethehealthyparts，themanscarcelyabletosubsistbeingeatenupalivebythemanwhohasnothingtoliveon。
"Thepeasantisruined，perishing，thevictimofoppressionbythemultitudeofthepoorthatlaywastethecountryandtakerefugeinthetowns。Hencethemobssoprejudicialtopublicsafety，thatcrowdofsmugglersandvagrants，thatlargebodyofmenwhohavebecomerobbersandassassins，solelybecausetheylackbread。ThisgivesbutafaintideaofthedisordersIhaveseenwithmyowneyes[36]。Thepovertyoftheruraldistricts，excessiveinitself，becomesyetmoresothroughthedisturbancesitengenders；wehavenottoseekelsewhereforfrightfulsourcesofmendicityandforallthevices。"[37]
Ofwhatavailarepalliativesorviolentproceedingsagainstanevilwhichisintheblood，andwhichbelongstotheveryconstitutionofthesocialorganism？Whatpoliceforcecouldeffectanythinginaparishinwhichone—quarterorone—thirdofitsinhabitantshavenothingtoeatbutthatwhichtheybegfromdoortodoor？AtArgentré，[38]inBrittany，"atownwithouttradeorindustry，outof2，300inhabitants，morethanone—halfareanythingelsebutwell—off，andover500arereducedtobeggary。"AtDainville，inArtois，"outof130housessixtyareonthepoor—list。"[39]InNormandy，accordingtostatementsmadebythecurates，"of900parishionersinSaint—Malo，three—quarterscanbarelyliveandtherestareinpoverty。""Of1，500
inhabitantsinSaint—Patrice，400liveonalms。"Of500inhabitantsinSaint—Laurentthree—quartersliveonalms。"AtMarboef，saysareport，"of500personsinhabitingourparish，100arereducedtomendicity，andbesidesthese，thirtyorfortyadaycometousfromneighboringparishes。"[40]AtBolboneinLanguedoc[41]dailyattheconventgateis"generalalmsgivingto300or400poorpeople，independentofthatfortheagedandthesick，whichismorenumerouslyattended。"AtLyons，in1787，"30，000workmendependonpubliccharityforsubsistence；"atRennes，in1788，afteraninundation，"two—thirdsoftheinhabitantsareinastateofdestitution；"[42]atParis，outof650，000inhabitants，thecensusof1791counts118，784asindigent。[43]—Letfrostorhailcome，asin1788，letacropfail，letbreadcostfoursousapound，andletaworkmaninthecharity—
workshopsearnonlytwelvesousaday，[44]canoneimaginethatpeoplewillresignthemselvestodeathbystarvation？AroundRouen，duringthewinterof1788，theforestsarepillagedinopenday，thewoodsatBaguèresarewhollycutaway，thefallentreesarepubliclysoldbythemarauders[45]。Boththefamishedandthemaraudersgotogether，necessitymakingitselftheaccompliceofcrime。Fromprovincetoprovincewecanfollowuptheirtracks:fourmonthslater，inthevicinityofEtampes，fifteenbrigandsbreakintofourfarmhousesduringthenight，whilethefarmers，threatenedbyincendiaries，areobligedtogive，onethreehundredfrancs，anotherfivehundred，allthemoney，probably，theyhaveintheircoffers[46]。
"Robbers，convicts，theworthlessofeveryspecies，"aretoformtheadvanceguardofinsurrectionsandleadthepeasantrytotheextremeofviolence[47]。AfterthesackoftheReveillonhouseinParisitisremarkedthat"ofthefortyringleadersarrested，therewasscarcelyonewhowasnotanoldoffender，andeitherfloggedorbranded。"[48]
Ineveryrevolutionthedregsofsocietycometothesurface。Neverhadthesebeenvisiblebefore；likebadgersinthewoods，orratsinthesewers，theyhadremainedintheirburrowsorintheirholes。Theyissuefromtheseinswarms，andsuddenly，inParis，whatfigures！[49]
"Neverhadanylikethembeenseenindaylight……Wheredotheycomefrom？Whohasbroughtthemoutoftheirobscurehidingplaces？……
strangersfromeverywhere，armedwithclubs，ragged，……somealmostnaked，othersoddlydressed"inincongruouspatchesand"frightfultolookat，"constitutetheriotouschiefsortheirsubordinates，atsixfrancsperhead，behindwhichthepeoplearetomarch。
"AtParis，"saysMercier，[50]"thepeopleareweak，pallid，diminutive，stunted，"maltreated，"and，apparently，aclassapartfromotherclassesinthecountry。Therichandthegreatwhopossessequipages，enjoytheprivilegeofcrushingthemorofmutilatingtheminthestreets……Thereisnoconvenienceforpedestrians，noside—
walks。Hundredvictimsdieannuallyunderthecarriagewheels。""I
saw，"saysArthurYoung，"apoorchildrunoverandprobablykilled，andhavebeenmyselfseveraltimesbeencoveredfromheadtotoewiththewaterfromthegutter。Shouldyoung（English）noblemendrivealongLondonstreetswithoutsidewalks，inthesamemannerastheirequalsinParis，theywouldspeedilyandjustlygetverywellthrashedandrolledinthegutter。"
Merciergrowsuneasyinthefaceoftheimmensepopulace:
"InParisthereare，probably，200，000personswithnopropertyintrinsicallyworthfiftycrowns，andyetthecitysubsists！"
Order，consequently，ismaintainedonlythroughfearandbyforce，owingtothesoldieryofthewatchwhoarecalledtristes—à—pattebythecrowd。"Thisnicknameenragesthisspeciesofmilitia，whothendealheavierblowsaroundthem，woundingindiscriminatelyalltheyencounter。Thelowclassisalwaysreadytomakewaronthembecauseithasneverbeenfairlytreatedbythem。"Infact，"asquadoftheguardoftenscatters，withnotrouble，crowdsoffiveorsixhundredmen，atfirstgreatlyexcited，butmeltingawayinthetwinklingofaneye，afterthesoldieryhavedistributedafewblowsandhandcuffedtwoorthreeoftheringleaders。"—Nevertheless，"werethepeopleofParisabandonedtotheirtrueinclinations，didtheynotfeelthehorseandfootguardsbehindthem，thecommissaryandpoliceman，therewouldbenolimitstotheirdisorder。Thepopulace，deliveredfromitscustomaryrestraint，wouldgiveitselfuptoviolenceofsocruelastampasnottoknowwhentostop……Aslongaswhitebreadlasts，[51]thecommotionwillnotprovegeneral；theflourmarket[52]
mustinterestitselfinthematter，ifthewomenaretoremaintranquil……Shouldwhitebreadbewantingfortwomarketdaysinsuccession，theuprisingwouldbeuniversal，anditisimpossibletoforeseethelengthsthismultitudeatbaywillgotoinordertoescapefamine，theyandtheirchildren。"—In1789whitebreadprovestobewantingthroughoutFrance。
Notes:
[1]ThérondeMontaugé，102，113。IntheToulousaintenparishesoutoffiftyhaveschools。—InGascony，saystheass。prov。ofAuch（p。24），"mostoftheruraldistrictsarewithoutschoolmastersorparsonages。"—In1778，thepostbetweenParisandToulouserunsonlythreetimesaweek；thatofToulousebywayofAlby，Rodez，etc。，twiceaweek；forBeaumont，Saint—Girons，etc。，onceaweek。"Inthecountry，"saysThérondeMontaugé，"onemaybesaidtoliveinsolitudeandexile。"In1789theParispostreachesBesan？onthreetimesaweek。（ArthurYoung，I。257）。
[2]OneoftheMarquisdeMirabeau’sexpressions。
[3]Archivesnationales，G。300，letterofanexcisedirectoratCoulommiers，Aug。13，1781。
[4]D’Argenson，VI。425（June16，1751）。
[5]DeMontlosier，I。102，146。
[6]ThérondeMontaugé，102。
[7]MonsieurNicolas，I。448。
[8]"TableauxdelaRévolution，"bySchmidt，II。7（reportbytheagentPerrierewholivedinAuvergne。）
[9]GouverneurMorris，II。69，April29，1789。
[10]Mercier，"TableaudeParis，"XII。83。
[11]DeVaublanc，209。
[12]Mandrin，（Louis）（Saintétienne—de—Saint—Geoirs，Isère，1724
—Valence，1755）。Frenchsmugglerwho，after1750，wasactiveoveranenormousterritorywiththesupportofthepopulation；hunteddownbythearmy，caught，condemnedtodeathtobebrokenaliveonthewheel。
（SR。）
[13]ArthurYoung，I。283（Aug。13，1789）；I。289（Aug。19，1789）。
[14]Archivesnationales，H，274。LettersrespectivelyofM。deCaraman（March18andApril12，1789）；M。d’EymardeMontmegran（April2）；M。delaTour（March30）。"Thesovereign’sgreatestbenefitisinterpretedinthestrangestmannerbyanignorantpopulace。"
[15]Doniol，"Hist。Desclassesrurales，"495。（LetterofAug。3，1789，toM。deClermont—Tonnerre）。
[16]Archivesnationales，H。1453。（LetterofAug。3，1789，toM。
deClermont—Tonnere）。
[17]Procès—verbauxdel’ass。Prov。D’Orléanais，"p。296。"Distrustsstillprevailsthroughouttheruraldistricts……Yourfirstordersfordepartmentalassembliesonlyawakenedsuspicionincertainquarters。"
[18]"TableaudeParis，"XII。186。
[19]Mme。Vigée—Lebrun，I。158，（1788）；I。183（1789）。
[20]Archivesnationals，H。723。（LetterofM。deCaumartin，intendantatBesan？on，Dec。5，1788）。
[21]D’Argenson，March13，1752。
[22]"Corresp。，"ofMétra，V，179（November22，1777）。
[23]Beugnot，I。142。"NoinhabitantofthebaronyofChoiseulmingledwithanyofthebandscomposedofthepatriotsofMontigny，smugglersandoutcastsoftheneighborhood。"—See，onthepoachersoftheday，"LesdeuxamisdeBourbonne，"byDiderot。
[24]DeCalonne，"Mémoirespresentésàl’ass。desnotables，"No。8。
—Necker，"Del’AdministrationdesFinances，"I。195。
[25]Letrosne，"Del’AdministrationdesFinances，"59。
[26]Archivesnationales，H。426。（Mémoiresofthefarmers—general，Jan。13，1781，Sept。15，1782）。H，614。（LetterofM。deCoetlosquet，April25，1777）。H，1431。Reportbythefarmers—general，March9，1787。
[27]Archivesnationales，H，1453。LetteroftheBarondeBezenval，June19，1789。
[28]"Mandrin，"byPaulSimian，passim。—"HistoiredeBeaume，"
byRossignol，p。453。—"Mandrin，"byCh。Jarrin（1875）。MajorFisher，whoattacksanddispersesthegang，writesthattheaffairisurgentsince，"highertotheNorthnearForez，onecanfindtwoorthreehundredvagrantswhoonlywaitforachancetounitewiththem。"
（p。47。）
[29]Mercier，XI。116。
[30]Seeabove，bookI。p。55。
[31]Letrosne，ibid。（1779），p。539。
[32]Archivesnationales，F16，965，andH，892。（OrdinanceofAugust41764；acircularofinstructionsofJuly20，1767；aletterofapolicelieutenantofToulouse，September21，1787）。
[33]Archivesnationales，H，724；H，554；F42397；F16965。—
LettersofthejailersofCarcassonne（June22，1789）；ofBéziers（July19，1786）；ofNimes（July1，1786）；oftheintendant，M。d’Aine（March19，1786）。
[34]Archivesnationales，H，554。（LetterofM。deBertrand，intendantofRennes，August7，1785）。
[35]Archivesnationales，H，426。（Remonstrances，Feb。1783）。—H，554。（LetterofM。deBertrand，Aug。17，1785）。
[36]Archivesnationales，H，614（MémoirebyRenédeHauteville，parliamentaryadvocate，Saint—Brieuc，Dec。25，1776。）
[37]"Process—verbauxdel’ass。Prov。deSoissonnais"（1787）p。
457。
[38]Archivesnationales，H，616（AletterofM。DeBoves，intendantofRennes，April23，1774）。
[39]Périn，"LaJeunessedeRobespierre，"301。（Doléancesdesparroissesruralesen1789）。
[40]Hippeau，"LeGouvern。deNormandie，"VII。147—177（1789）。—
Boivin—Champeaux，"Noticehist。surlaRévolutiondansledépartementdel’Eure，"p。83（1789）。
[41]ThérondeMontaugé，p。87。（Letteroftheprioroftheconvent，March，1789）。
[42]"Procès—verbauxdel’Ass。prov。deLyonnais，"p。57。—
Archivesnationales，F4，2073。MemorandumofJan。24，1788。
"Charitableassistanceisverylimited，theprovincialauthoritiesprovidingnoresourcesforsuchaccidents。"
[43]Levasseur，"LaFranceindustrielle，"119。—In1862，thepopulationbeingalmosttriple（1696000）therearebut90000
paupers。
[44]AlbertBabeau，"Hist。deTroyes，"I。91。（LetterofthemayorHuez，July30，1788）。
[45]Floquet，VII，506。
[46]Archivesnationales，H，1453。（LetterofM。deSainte—Suzanne，April29，1789）。
[47]ArthurYoung，I。256。
[48]"Correspond。secrètinédite，"from1777to1792，publishedbyM。deLescure，II。351（May8，1789）。Cf。C。Desmoulins，"LaLanterne，"of100riotersarrestedatLyons96werebranded。
[49]DeBezenval，II。344，350。—Dussault，"LaPrisedelaBastille，"352。—Marmontel，II，ch。XIV，249。——Mme。Vigée—Lebrun，I。
177，188。
[50]Mercier，I。32；VI。15；X。179；XI。59；XII。83。—ArthurYoung，I。122。
[51]Intheoriginal，paindeGonesse，—bread，madeinavillageofthisnamenearParis，andrenownedforitswhiteness。—TR。
[52]"Dialoguessurlecommercedesblés，"byGaliani（1770）。"Ifthestrongofthemarketsarecontent，nomisfortunewillhappentotheadministration。Thegreatconspireandrebel；thebourgeoismurmursandlivesacelibate；peasantsandartisansdespairandgoaway；portersgetupriots。"
CHAPTERIV。TheArmedForces。
I。
Militaryforcedeclines。—Howthearmyisrecruited。—Howthesoldieristreated。
Againstuniversalseditionwhereisforce？—Themeasuresanddispositionswhichgovernthe150，000menwhomaintainorderarethesameasthoserulingthe26millionspeoplesubjecttoit。Wefindherethesameabuses，disaffection，andothercausesforthedissolutionofthenationwhich，intheirturn，willdissolvethearmy。
Ofthe90millionsofpay[1]whichthearmyannuallycoststhetreasury，46millionsareforofficersandonly44millionsforsoldiers，andwearealreadyawarethatanewordinancereservesranksofallkindsforverifiednobles。Innodirectionisthisinequality，againstwhichpublicopinionrebelssovigorously，moreapparent。Ontheonehand，authority，honors，money，leisure，good—living，socialenjoyments，andplaysinprivate，fortheminority。Ontheotherhand，forthemajority，subjection，dejection，fatigue，aforcedorbetrayedenlistment，nohopeofpromotion，payatsixsousaday，[2]anarrowcotfortwo，breadfitfordogs，and，forseveralyears，kickslikethosebestowedonadog。[3]Ontheonehand，anobilityofhighestate，and，ontheother，thelowestofthepopulace。Onemightsaythatthiswasspeciallydesignedforcontrastandtointensifyirritation。"Theinsignificantpayofthesoldier，"saysaneconomist，"thewayinwhichheisdressed，lodgedandfed，hisutterdependence，wouldrenderitcrueltytotakeanyotherthanamanofthelowerclass。"[4]Indeed，heissoughtforonlyinthelowestlayersofsociety。Notonlyarenoblesandthebourgeoisieexemptfromconscription，butagaintheemployeesoftheadministration，ofthefermesandofpublicworks，"allgamekeepersandforest—rangers，thehireddomesticsandvaletsofecclesiastics，ofcommunities，ofreligiousestablishments，ofthegentryandofnobles，"[5]andevenofthebourgeoisielivingingrandstyle，andstillbetter，thesonsofcultivatorsineasycircumstances，and，ingeneral，allpossessinginfluenceoranyspeciesofprotector。Thereremains，accordingly，forthemilitianonebutthepoorestclass，andtheydonotwillinglyenterit。Onthecontrary，theserviceishatefultothem；theyconcealthemselvesintheforestswheretheyhavetobepursuedbyarmedmen:inacertaincantonwhich，threeyearslater，furnishesinonedayfromfiftytoonehundredvolunteers，theyoungmencutofftheirthumbstoescapethedraft。[6]Tothisscumofsocietyisaddedthesweepingsofthedepotsandofthejails。Amongthevagabondsthatfillthese，afterwinnowingoutthoseabletomaketheirfamiliesknownortoobtainsponsors，"therearenoneleft，"saysanintendant，"butthosewhoareentirelyunknownordangerous，outofwhichthoseregardedastheleastviciousareselectedandeffortsaremadetoplacetheseinthearmy。"[7]—Thelastofitsaffluentsisthehalf—forced，half—voluntaryenlistmentbywhichtheranksareforthemostpartfilled，thehumanwasteoflargetowns，likeadventurers，dischargedapprentices，youngreprobatesturnedoutofdoors，andpeoplewithouthomesorsteadyoccupation。Therecruitingagentwhoispaidsomuchaheadforhisrecruitsandsomuchaninchontheirstatureabovefivefeet，"holdshiscourtinatavern，treatingeveryone"promotinghismerchandise:
"Come，boys，soup，fish，meatandsaladiswhatyougettoeatintheregiment；"nothingelse，"Idon’tdeceiveyou—pieandArboiswinearetheextras。"[8]
Hepoursthewine，paysthebilland，ifneedbe，yieldshismistress。"Afterafewdaysdebauchery，theyounglibertine，withnomoneytopayhisdebts，isobligedtosellhimself，whilethelaborer，transformedintosoldier，beginstodrillunderthelash。"—Strangerecruitsthese，fortheprotectionofsociety，allselectedfromtheclasswhichwillattackit，down—troddenpeasants，imprisonedvagabonds，socialoutcasts，poorfellowsindebt，disheartened，excitedandeasilytempted，who，accordingtocircumstances，becomeatonetimerioters，andatanothersoldiers。—Whichlotispreferable？
Thebreadthesoldiereatsisnotmoreabundantthanthatoftheprisoner，whilepoorerinquality；forthebranistakenoutofthebreadwhichthelocked—upvagabondeats，andleftinthebreadwhichiseatenbythesoldierwholockshimup[9]。Inthisstateofthingsthesoldieroughtnottomediateonhislot，andyetthisisjustwhathisofficersincitehimtodo。Theyalsohavebecomepoliticiansandfault—finders。SomeyearsbeforetheRevolution[10]"disputesoccurred"inthearmy，"discussionsandcomplaints，and，thenewideasfermentingintheirheads，acorrespondencewasestablishedbetweentworegiments。WritteninformationwasobtainedfromParis，authorizedbytheMinisterofWar，whichcost，Ibelieve，twelvelouisperannum。
Itsoontookaphilosophicturn，embracingdissertations，criticismsoftheministry，andofthegovernment，desirablechangesand，therefore，themorediffused。"SergeantslikeHoche，andfencing—
masterslikeAugereau，certainlyoftenreadthisnews，carelesslyleftlyingonthetables，andcommentedonitduringtheeveningintheirsoldierquarters。Discontentisofancientdate，andalready，attheendofthelatereign，grievouswordsareheard。Atabanquetgivenbyaprinceoftheblood，[11]withatablesetforahundredguestsunderanimmensetentandservedbygrenadiers，theodorthesediffusedupsettheprince’sdelicatenose。"Theseworthyfellows，"saidhe，alittletooloud，"smellstrongofthestocking。"Oneofthegrenadiersbluntlyresponded，"Becausewehaven’tgotany，"which"wasfollowedbyprofoundsilence。"Duringtheensuringyearsirritationsmoldersandaugments；thesoldiersofRochambeauhavefoughtsidebysidewiththefreemilitiaofAmerica，andtheykeepthisinmind。In1788，[12]
MarshaldeVaux，previoustotheinsurrectioninDauphiny，writestoministerthat"itisimpossibletorelyonthetroops，"whilefourmonthsaftertheopeningoftheStates—General16，000desertersroamingaroundParisleadstherevoltsinsteadofsuppressingthem。[13]
II。
Thesocialorganizationisdissolved。—Nocentralrallyingpoint。—Inertiaoftheprovinces。—AscendancyofParis。
Oncethisbarrierhasdisappeared，nootherembankmentremainsandtheinundationspreadsalloverFrancelikeoveranimmenseplain。
Withothernationsinlikecircumstances，someobstacleshavebeenencountered；elevationshaveexisted，centersofrefuge，oldconstructionsinwhich，intheuniversalfright，aportionofthepopulationcouldfindshelter。Here，thefirstcrisissweepsawayallthatremains，eachindividualofthetwenty—sixscatteredmillionsstandingalonebyhimself。TheadministrationsofRichelieuandLouisXIV。hadbeenalongtimeatworkinsensiblydestroyingthenaturalgroupingswhich，whensuddenlydissolved，uniteandformoveragainoftheirownaccord。ExceptinVendée，Ifindnoplace，noranyclass，inwhichagoodmanymen，havingconfidenceinafewmen，areable，inthehourofdanger，torallyaroundtheseandformacompactbody。
Neitherprovincialnormunicipalpatriotismanylongerexists。Theinferiorclergyarehostiletotheprelates，thegentryoftheprovincetothenobilityofthecourt，thevassaltotheseignior，thepeasanttothetownsman，theurbanpopulationtothemunicipaloligarchy，corporationtocorporation，parishtoparish，neighbortoneighbor。Allareseparatedbytheirprivilegesandtheirjealousies，bytheconsciousnessofhavingbeenimposedon，orfrustrated，fortheadvantageofanother。Thejourneymantailorisembitteredagainsthisforemanforpreventinghimfromdoingaday’sworkinprivatehouses，hairdressersagainsttheiremployersforthelikereason，thepastry—
cookagainstthebakerwhopreventshimfrombakingthepiesofhousekeepers，thevillagespinneragainstthetownspinnerswhowishtobreakhimup，theruralwine—growersagainstthebourgeoiswho，inthecircleofsevenleagues，strivestohavetheirvinespulledup，[14]thevillageagainsttheneighboringvillagewhosereductionoftaxationhasruinedit，theovertaxedpeasantagainsttheundertaxedpeasant，one—halfofaparishagainstitscollectors，who，toitsdetriment，havefavoredtheotherhalf。
"Thenation，"saysTurgot，mournfully，[15]"isasocietycomposedofdifferentordersbadlyunitedandofapeoplewhosemembershavefewmutualliens，nobody，consequently，caringforanyinterestbuthisown。Nowhereisthereanysignofaninterestincommon。Townsandvillagesmaintainnomorerelationwitheachotherthanthedistrictstowhichtheyareattached；theyareevenunabletoagreetogetherwithaviewtocarryoutpublicimprovementsofgreatimportancetothem。"
Thecentralpowerforahundredandfiftyyearsrulesthroughitsdivisionofpower。Menhavebeenkeptseparate，preventedfromactinginconcert，theworkbeingsosuccessfulthattheynolongerunderstandeachother，eachclassignoringtheotherclass，eachformingoftheotherachimericalpicture，eachbestowingontheotherthehuesofitsownimagination，onecomposinganidyll，theotherframingamelodrama，oneimaginingpeasantsassentimentalswains，theotherconvincedthatthenoblesarehorribletyrants。—Throughthismutualmisconceptionandthissecularisolation，theFrenchlosethehabit，theartandthefacultyforactinginanentirebody。Theyarenolongercapableofspontaneousagreementandcollectiveaction。
Noone，inthemomentofdanger，daresrelyonhisneighborsoronhisequals。Nooneknowswheretoturntoobtainaguide。"Amanwillingtoberesponsibleforthesmallestdistrictcannotbefound；and，morethanthis，onemanabletoanswerforanotherman[16]。"Utterandirremediabledisorderisathand。TheUtopiaofthetheoristshasbeenaccomplished，thesavageconditionhasrecommenced。Individualsnowstandinbythemselves；everyonerevertingbacktohisoriginalfeebleness，whilehispossessionsandhislifeareatthemercyofthefirstbandthatcomesalong。Hehasnothingwithinhimtocontrolhimbutthesheep—likehabitofbeingled，ofawaitinganimpulsion，ofturningtowardstheaccustomedcenter，towardsParis，fromwhichhisordershavealwaysarrived。ArthurYoung[17]isstruckwiththismechanicalmovement。Politicalignoranceanddocilityareeverywherecomplete。He，aforeigner，conveysthenewsofAlsaceintoBurgundy:
theinsurrectiontherehadbeenterrible，thepopulacehavingsackedthecity—hallatStrasbourg，ofwhichnotawordwasknownatDijon；
"yetitisninedayssinceithappened；haditbeennineteenI
questioniftheywouldmorethanhavereceivedtheintelligence。"
Therearenonewspapersinthecafés；nolocalcentersofinformation，ofresolution，ofaction。Theprovincesubmitstoeventsatthecapital；"peopledarenotmove；theydarenotevenformanopinionbeforeParisspeaks。"—ThisiswhatMonarchicalcentralizationleadsto。Ithasdeprivedthegroupsoftheircohesionandtheindividualofhismotivationaldrive。Onlyhumandustremains，andthis，whirlingaboutandgatheredtogetherinmassiveforce，isblindlydrivenalongbythewind。[18]
III。
Directionofthecurrent。—Thepeopleledbylawyers。—
Theoriesandpiquesthesolesurvivingforces。—SuicideoftheAncientregime。
Weareallwellawarefromwhichsidethegalecomes，and，toassureourselves，wehavemerelytoseehowthereportsoftheThird—
Estatearemadeup。Thepeasantisledbythemanofthelaw，thepettyattorneyoftheruraldistricts，theenviousadvocateandtheorist。Thisoneinsists，inthereport，onastatementbeingmadeinwritingandatlengthofhislocalandpersonalgrievances，hisprotestagainsttaxesanddeductions，hisrequesttohavehisdogfreeoftheclog，andhisdesiretoownaguntouseagainstthewolves[19]。Anotherone，whosuggestsanddirects，envelopesallthisinthelanguageoftheRightsofManandthatofthecircularofSieyès。