youngFrenchnoblemanwillweepinthepresenceofthewholecourtuponbeingrefusedaregiment。AnItalian，saystheabbotD？Bos，expressesmoreemotiononbeingcondemnedinafineoftwentyshillings，thananEnglishmanonreceivingthesentenceofdeath。Cicero，inthetimesofthehighestRomanpoliteness，could，withoutdegradinghimself，weepwithallthebitternessofsorrowinthesightofthewholesenateandthewholepeople；asitisevidenthemusthavedoneintheendofalmosteveryoration。TheoratorsoftheearlierandruderagesofRomecouldnotprobably，consistentwiththemannersofthetimes，haveexpressedthemselveswithsomuchemotion。Itwouldhavebeenregarded，Isuppose，asaviolationofnatureandproprietyintheScipios，intheLeliuses，andintheelderCato，tohaveexposedsomuchtendernesstotheviewofthepublic。Thoseancientwarriorscouldexpressthemselveswithorder，gravity，andgoodjudgment；butaresaidtohavebeenstrangerstothatsublimeandpassionateeloquencewhichwasfirstintroducedintoRome，notmanyyearsbeforethebirthofCicero，bythetwoGracchi，byCrassus，andbySulpitius。Thisanimatedeloquence，whichhasbeenlongpractised，withorwithoutsuccess，bothinFranceandItaly，isbutjustbeginningtobeintroducedintoEngland。Sowideisthedifferencebetweenthedegreesofself-commandwhicharerequiredincivilizedandinbarbarousnations，andbysuchdifferentstandardsdotheyjudgeoftheproprietyofbehaviour。
　　Thisdifferencegivesoccasiontomanyothersthatarenotlessessential。Apolishedpeoplebeingaccustomedtogiveway，insomemeasure，tothemovementsofnature，becomefrank，open，andsincere。Barbarians，onthecontrary，beingobligedtosmotherandconcealtheappearanceofeverypassion，necessarilyacquirethehabitsoffalsehoodanddissimulation。Itisobservedbyallthosewhohavebeenconversantwithsavagenations，whetherinAsia，Africa，orAmerica，thattheyareallequallyimpenetrable，andthat，whentheyhaveamindtoconcealthetruth，noexaminationiscapableofdrawingitfromthem。Theycannotbetrepannedbythemostartfulquestions。Thetortureitselfisincapableofmakingthemconfessanythingwhichtheyhavenomindtotell。Thepassionsofasavagetoo，thoughtheyneverexpressthemselvesbyanyoutwardemotion，butlieconcealedinthebreastofthesufferer，are，notwithstanding，allmountedtothehighestpitchoffury。Thoughheseldomshowsanysymptomsofanger，yethisvengeance，whenhecomestogivewaytoit，isalwayssanguinaryanddreadful。Theleastaffrontdriveshimtodespair。Hiscountenanceanddiscourseindeedarestillsoberandcomposed，andexpressnothingbutthemostperfecttranquillityofmind:buthisactionsareoftenthemostfuriousandviolent。AmongtheNorth-Americansitisnotuncommonforpersonsofthetenderestageandmorefearfulsextodrownthemselvesuponreceivingonlyaslightreprimandfromtheirmothers，andthistoowithoutexpressinganypassion，orsayinganything，except，youshallnolongerhaveadaughter。Incivilizednationsthepassionsofmenarenotcommonlysofuriousorsodesperate。Theyareoftenclamorousandnoisy，butareseldomveryhurtful；andseemfrequentlytoaimatnoothersatisfaction，butthatofconvincingthespectator，thattheyareintherighttobesomuchmoved，andofprocuringhissympathyandapprobation。
　　Alltheseeffectsofcustomandfashion，however，uponthemoralsentimentsofmankind，areinconsiderable，incomparisonofthosewhichtheygiveoccasiontoinsomeothercases；anditisnotconcerningthegeneralstyleofcharacterandbehaviour，thatthoseprinciplesproducethegreatestperversionofjudgment，butconcerningtheproprietyorimproprietyofparticularusages。
　　Thedifferentmannerswhichcustomteachesustoapproveofinthedifferentprofessionsandstatesoflife，donotconcernthingsofthegreatestimportance。Weexpecttruthandjusticefromanoldmanaswellasfromayoung，fromaclergymanaswellasfromanofficer；anditisinmattersofsmallmomentonlythatwelookforthedistinguishingmarksoftheirrespectivecharacters。Withregardtothesetoo，thereisoftensomeunobservedcircumstancewhich，ifitwasattendedto，wouldshowus，that，independentofcustom，therewasaproprietyinthecharacterwhichcustomhadtaughtustoallottoeachprofession。
　　Wecannotcomplain，therefore，inthiscase，thattheperversionofnaturalsentimentisverygreat。Thoughthemannersofdifferentnationsrequiredifferentdegreesofthesamequality，inthecharacterwhichtheythinkworthyofesteem，yettheworstthatcanbesaidtohappenevenhere，isthatthedutiesofonevirtuearesometimesextendedsoastoencroachalittleupontheprecinctsofsomeother。TherustichospitalitythatisinfashionamongthePolesencroaches，perhaps，alittleuponoeconomyandgoodorder；andthefrugalitythatisesteemedinHolland，upongenerosityandgood-fellowship。Thehardinessdemandedofsavagesdiminishestheirhumanity；and，perhaps，thedelicatesensibilityrequiredincivilizednationssometimesdestroysthemasculinefirmnessofthecharacter。Ingeneral，thestyleofmannerswhichtakesplaceinanynation，maycommonlyuponthewholebesaidtobethatwhichismostsuitabletoitssituation。Hardinessisthecharactermostsuitabletothecircumstancesofasavage；sensibilitytothoseofonewholivesinaverycivilizedsociety。Evenhere，therefore，wecannotcomplainthatthemoralsentimentsofmenareverygrosslyperverted。
　　Itisnotthereforeinthegeneralstyleofconductorbehaviourthatcustomauthorisesthewidestdeparturefromwhatisthenaturalproprietyofaction。Withregardtoparticularusages，itsinfluenceisoftenmuchmoredestructiveofgoodmorals，anditiscapableofestablishing，aslawfulandblameless，particularactions，whichshocktheplainestprinciplesofrightandwrong。
　　Cantherebegreaterbarbarityforexample，thantohurtaninfant？Itshelplessness，itsinnocence，itsamiableness，callforththecompassion，evenofanenemy，andnottosparethattenderageisregardedasthemostfuriouseffortofanenragedandcruelconqueror。Whatthenshouldweimaginemustbetheheartofaparentwhocouldinjurethatweaknesswhichevenafuriousenemyisafraidtoviolate？Yettheexposition，thatis，themurderofnew-borninfants，wasapracticeallowedofinalmostallthestatesofGreece，evenamongthepoliteandcivilizedAthenians；andwheneverthecircumstancesoftheparentrendereditinconvenienttobringupthechild，toabandonittohunger，ortowildbeasts，wasregardedwithoutblameorcensure。
　　Thispracticehadprobablybegunintimesofthemostsavagebarbarity。Theimaginationsofmenhadbeenfirstmadefamiliarwithitinthatearliestperiodofsociety，andtheuniformcontinuanceofthecustomhadhinderedthemafterwardsfromperceivingitsenormity。Wefind，atthisday，thatthispracticeprevailsamongallsavagenations；andinthatrudestandloweststateofsocietyitisundoubtedlymorepardonablethaninanyother。Theextremeindigenceofasavageisoftensuchthathehimselfisfrequentlyexposedtothegreatestextremityofhunger，heoftendiesofpurewant，anditisfrequentlyimpossibleforhimtosupportbothhimselfandhischild。Wecannotwonder，therefore，thatinthiscaseheshouldabandonit。
　　Onewho，inflyingfromanenemy，whomitwasimpossibletoresist，shouldthrowdownhisinfant，becauseitretardedhisflight，wouldsurelybeexcusable；since，byattemptingtosaveit，hecouldonlyhopefortheconsolationofdyingwithit。Thatinthisstateofsociety，therefore，aparentshouldbeallowedtojudgewhetherhecanbringuphischild，oughtnottosurpriseussogreatly。InthelatteragesofGreece，however，thesamethingwaspermittedfromviewsofremoteinterestorconveniency，whichcouldbynomeansexcuseit。Uninterruptedcustomhadbythistimesothoroughlyauthorisedthepractice，thatnotonlytheloosemaximsoftheworldtoleratedthisbarbarousprerogative，buteventhedoctrineofphilosophers，whichoughttohavebeenmorejustandaccurate，wasledawaybytheestablishedcustom，anduponthis，asuponmanyotheroccasions，insteadofcensuring，supportedthehorribleabuse，byfar-fetchedconsiderationsofpublicutility。Aristotletalksofitasofwhatthemagistrateoughtuponmanyoccasionstoencourage。ThehumanePlatoisofthesameopinion，and，withallthatloveofmankindwhichseemstoanimateallhiswritings，nowheremarksthispracticewithdisapprobation。Whencustomcangivesanctiontosodreadfulaviolationofhumanity，wemaywellimaginethatthereisscarceanyparticularpracticesogrosswhichitcannotauthorise。Suchathing，wehearmeneverydaysaying，iscommonlydone，andtheyseemtothinkthisasufficientapologyforwhat，initself，isthemostunjustandunreasonableconduct。
　　Thereisanobviousreasonwhycustomshouldneverpervertoursentimentswithregardtothegeneralstyleandcharacterofconductandbehaviour，inthesamedegreeaswithregardtotheproprietyorunlawfulnessofparticularusages。Therenevercanbeanysuchcustom。Nosocietycouldsubsistamoment，inwhichtheusualstrainofmen’sconductandbehaviourwasofapiecewiththehorriblepracticeIhavejustnowmentioned。
　　OftheCharacterofVirtueConsistingofThreeSectionsIntroductionWhenweconsiderthecharacterofanyindividual，wenaturallyviewitundertwodifferentaspects；first，asitmayaffecthisownhappiness；andsecondly，asitmayaffectthatofotherpeople。
　　OftheCharacteroftheIndividual，sofarasitaffectshisownHappiness；orofPrudenceThepreservationandhealthfulstateofthebodyseemtobetheobjectswhichNaturefirstrecommendstothecareofeveryindividual。Theappetitesofhungerandthirst，theagreeableordisagreeablesensationsofpleasureandpain，ofheatandcold，etc。maybeconsideredaslessonsdeliveredbythevoiceofNatureherself，directinghimwhatheoughttochuse，andwhatheoughttoavoid，forthispurpose。Thefirstlessonswhichheistaughtbythosetowhomhischildhoodisentrusted，tend，thegreaterpartofthem，tothesamepurpose。Theirprincipalobjectistoteachhimhowtokeepoutofharm’sway。
　　Ashegrowsup，hesoonlearnsthatsomecareandforesightarenecessaryforprovidingthemeansofgratifyingthosenaturalappetites，ofprocuringpleasureandavoidingpain，ofprocuringtheagreeableandavoidingthedisagreeabletemperatureofheatandcold。Intheproperdirectionofthiscareandforesightconsiststheartofpreservingandincreasingwhatiscalledhisexternalfortune。
　　Thoughitisinordertosupplythenecessitiesandconvenienciesofthebody，thattheadvantagesofexternalfortuneareoriginallyrecommendedtous，yetwecannotlivelongintheworldwithoutperceivingthattherespectofourequals，ourcreditandrankinthesocietywelivein，dependverymuchuponthedegreeinwhichwepossess，oraresupposedtopossess，thoseadvantages。Thedesireofbecomingtheproperobjectsofthisrespect，ofdeservingandobtainingthiscreditandrankamongourequals，is，perhaps，thestrongestofallourdesires，andouranxietytoobtaintheadvantagesoffortuneisaccordinglymuchmoreexcitedandirritatedbythisdesire，thanbythatofsupplyingallthenecessitiesandconvenienciesofthebody，whicharealwaysveryeasilysupplied。
　　Ourrankandcreditamongourequals，too，dependverymuchupon，what，perhaps，avirtuousmanwouldwishthemtodependentirely，ourcharacterandconduct，orupontheconfidence，esteem，andgood-will，whichthesenaturallyexciteinthepeoplewelivewith。
　　Thecareofthehealth，ofthefortune，oftherankandreputationoftheindividual，theobjectsuponwhichhiscomfortandhappinessinthislifearesupposedprincipallytodepend，isconsideredastheproperbusinessofthatvirtuewhichiscommonlycalledPrudence。