WhatatreasurewillbefoundinGeneralWashington’scabinet，whenitshallpassintothehandsofascandidafriendtotruthashewashimself！Whennolonger，likeCaesar’snotesandmemorandumsinthehandsofAnthony，itshallbeopentothehighpriestsoffederalismonly，andgarbledtosaysomuch，andnomore，assuitstheirviews！
　　Withrespecttohisfarewelladdress，totheauthorshipofwhich，itseems，thereareconflictingclaims，Icanstatetoyousomefacts。Hehaddeterminedtodeclinere-electionattheendofhisfirstterm，andsofardetermined，thathehadrequestedMr。
　　Madisontoprepareforhimsomethingvaledictory，tobeaddressedtohisconstituentsonhisretirement。Thiswasdone，buthewasfinallypersuadedtoacquiesceinasecondelection，towhichnoonemorestrenuouslypressedhimthanmyself，fromaconvictionoftheimportanceofstrengthening，bylongerhabit，therespectnecessaryforthatoffice，whichtheweightofhischaracteronlycouldeffect。
　　When，attheendofhissecondterm，hisValedictorycameout，Mr。
　　Madisonrecognizedinitseveralpassagesofhisdraught，severalothers，wewerebothsatisfied，werefromthepenofHamilton，andothersfromthatofthePresidenthimself。TheseheprobablyputintothehandsofHamiltontoformintoawhole，andhenceitmayallappearinHamilton’shand-writing，asifitwereallofhiscomposition。
　　Ihavestatedabove，thattheoriginalobjectsofthefederalistswere，1st，towarpourgovernmentmoretotheformandprinciplesofmonarchy，and，2d，toweakenthebarriersoftheStategovernmentsascoordinatepowers。Inthefirsttheyhavebeensocompletelyfoiledbytheuniversalspiritofthenation，thattheyhaveabandonedtheenterprise，shrunkfromtheodiumoftheiroldappellation，takentothemselvesaparticipationofours，andunderthepseudo-republicanmask，arenowaimingattheirsecondobject，andstrengthenedbyunsuspectingorapostaterecruitsfromourranks，areadvancingfasttowardsanascendancy。Ihavebeenblamedforsaying，thataprevalenceofthedoctrinesofconsolidationwouldonedaycallforreformationor_revolution_。IanswerbyaskingifasingleStateoftheUnionwouldhaveagreedtotheconstitution，haditgivenallpowerstotheGeneralGovernment?IfthewholeoppositiontoitdidnotproceedfromthejealousyandfearofeveryState，ofbeingsubjectedtotheotherStatesinmattersmerelyitsown?AndifthereisanyreasontobelievetheStatesmoredisposednowthanthen，toacquiesceinthisgeneralsurrenderofalltheirrightsandpowerstoaconsolidatedgovernment，oneandundivided?
　　Yourequestmeconfidentially，toexaminethequestion，whethertheSupremeCourthasadvancedbeyonditsconstitutionallimits，andtrespassedonthoseoftheStateauthorities?Idonotundertakeit，mydearSir，becauseIamunable。Ageandthewaneofmindconsequentonit，havedisqualifiedmefrominvestigationssosevere，andresearchessolaborious。Anditisthelessnecessaryinthiscase，ashavingbeenalreadydonebyotherswithalogicandlearningtowhichIcouldaddnothing。OnthedecisionofthecaseofCohens_vs_。TheStateofVirginia，intheSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStates，inMarch，1821，JudgeRoane，underthesignatureofAlgernonSidney，wrotefortheEnquireraseriesofpapersonthelawofthatcase。Iconsideredthesepapersmaturelyastheycameout，andconfessthattheyappearedtometopulverizeeverywordwhichhadbeendeliveredbyJudgeMarshall，oftheextra-judicialpartofhisopinion；andallwasextra-judicial，exceptthedecisionthattheactofCongresshadnotpurportedtogivetothecorporationofWashingtontheauthorityclaimedbytheirlotterylaw，ofcontrollingthelawsoftheStateswithintheStatesthemselves。Butunabletoclaimthatcase，hecouldnotletitgoentirely，butwentongratuitouslytoprove，thatnotwithstandingtheeleventhamendmentoftheconstitution，aState_could_bebroughtasadefendant，tothebarofhiscourt；andagain，thatCongressmightauthorizeacorporationofitsterritorytoexerciselegislationwithinaState，andparamounttothelawsofthatState。Icitethesumandresultonlyofhisdoctrines，accordingtotheimpressionmadeonmymindatthetime，andstillremaining。Ifnotstrictlyaccurateincircumstance，itissoinsubstance。ThisdoctrinewassocompletelyrefutedbyRoane，thatifhecanbeanswered，Isurrenderhumanreasonasavainanduselessfaculty，giventobewilder，andnottoguideus。AndImentionthisparticularcaseasoneonlyofseveral，becauseitgaveoccasiontothatthoroughexaminationoftheconstitutionallimitsbetweentheGeneralandStatejurisdictions，whichyouhaveaskedfor。Thereweretwootherwritersinthesamepaper，underthesignaturesofFletcherofSaltoun，andSomers，who，inafewessays，presentedsomeveryluminousandstrikingviewsofthequestion。AndtherewasaparticularpaperwhichrecapitulatedallthecasesinwhichitwasthoughtthefederalcourthadusurpedontheStatejurisdictions。TheseessayswillbefoundintheEnquirersof1821，fromMaythe10thtoJulythe13th。Itisnotinmypresentpowertosendthemtoyou，butifRitchiecanfurnishthem，Iwillprocureandforwardthem。IftheyhadbeenreadintheotherStates，astheywerehere，Ithinktheywouldhaveleft，thereashere，nodissentientsfromtheirdoctrine。Thesubjectwastakenupbyourlegislatureof1821-’22，andtwodraughtsofremonstranceswerepreparedanddiscussed。AswellasIremember，therewasnodifferenceofopinionastothematterofright；buttherewasastotheexpediencyofaremonstranceatthattime，thegeneralmindoftheStatesbeingthenunderextraordinaryexcitementbytheMissouriquestion；anditwasdroppedonthatconsideration。
　　Butthiscaseisnotdead，itonlysleepeth。TheIndianChiefsaidhedidnotgotowarforeverypettyinjurybyitself，butputitintohispouch，andwhenthatwasfull，hethenmadewar。ThankHeaven，wehaveprovidedamorepeaceableandrationalmodeofredress。
　　ThispracticeofJudgeMarshall，oftravellingoutofhiscasetoprescribewhatthelawwouldbeinamootcasenotbeforethecourt，isveryirregularandverycensurable。Irecollectanotherinstance，andthemoreparticularly，perhaps，becauseitinsomemeasureboreonmyself。AmongthemidnightappointmentsofMr。
　　Adams，werecommissionstosomefederaljusticesofthepeaceforAlexandria。Theseweresignedandsealedbyhim，butnotdelivered。
　　IfoundthemonthetableofthedepartmentofState，onmyentranceintooffice，andIforbadetheirdelivery。Marbury，namedinoneofthem，appliedtotheSupremeCourtforamandamustotheSecretaryofState，Mr。Madisontodeliverthecommissionintendedforhim。Thecourtdeterminedatonce，thatbeinganoriginalprocess，theyhadnocognizanceofit；andthereforethequestionbeforethemwasended。
　　ButtheChiefJusticewentontolaydownwhatthelawwouldbe，hadtheyjurisdictionofthecase，towit：thattheyshouldcommandthedelivery。Theobjectwasclearlytoinstructanyothercourthavingthejurisdiction，whattheyshoulddoifMarburyshouldapplytothem。Besidestheimproprietyofthisgratuitousinterference，couldanythingexceedtheperversionoflaw?Forifthereisanyprincipleoflawneveryetcontradicted，itisthatdeliveryisoneoftheessentialstothevalidityofthedeed。Althoughsignedandsealed，yetaslongasitremainsinthehandsofthepartyhimself，itisin_fieri_only，itisnotadeed，andcanbemadesoonlybyitsdelivery。Inthehandsofathirdpersonitmaybemadeanescrow。
　　ButwhateverisintheexecutiveofficesiscertainlydeemedtobeinthehandsofthePresident；andinthiscase，wasactuallyinmyhands，because，whenIcountermandedthem，therewasasyetnoSecretaryofState。YetthiscaseofMarburyandMadisoniscontinuallycitedbybenchandbar，asifitweresettledlaw，withoutanyanimadversiononitsbeingmerelyan_obiter_
　　dissertationoftheChiefJustice。
　　Itmaybeimpracticabletolaydownanygeneralformulaofwordswhichshalldecideatonce，andwithprecision，ineverycase，thislimitofjurisdiction。Buttherearetwocanonswhichwillguideussafelyinmostofthecases。1st。ThecapitalandleadingobjectoftheconstitutionwastoleavewiththeStatesallauthoritieswhichrespectedtheirowncitizensonly，andtotransfertotheUnitedStatesthosewhichrespectedcitizensofforeignorotherStates：tomakeusseveralastoourselves，butoneastoallothers。Inthelattercase，then，constructionsshouldleantothegeneraljurisdiction，ifthewordswillbearit；andinfavoroftheStatesintheformer，ifpossibletobesoconstrued。Andindeed，betweencitizensandcitizensofthesameState，andundertheirownlaws，IknowbutasinglecaseinwhichajurisdictionisgiventotheGeneralGovernment。Thatis，whereanythingbutgoldorsilverismadealawfultender，ortheobligationofcontractsisanyotherwiseimpaired。Theseparatelegislatureshadsooftenabusedthatpower，thatthecitizensthemselveschosetotrustittothegeneral，ratherthantotheirownspecialauthorities。2d。Oneveryquestionofconstruction，carryourselvesbacktothetimewhentheconstitutionwasadopted，recollectthespiritmanifestedinthedebates，andinsteadoftryingwhatmeaningmaybesqueezedoutofthetext，orinventedagainstit，conformtotheprobableoneinwhichitwaspassed。LetustryCohen’scasebythesecanonsonly，referringalways，however，forfullargument，totheessaysbeforecited。
　　1。ItwasbetweenacitizenandhisownState，andunderalawofhisState。Itwasadomesticcase，therefore，andnotaforeignone。
　　2。Canitbebelieved，thatunderthejealousiesprevailingagainsttheGeneralGovernment，attheadoptionoftheconstitution，theStatesmeanttosurrendertheauthorityofpreservingorder，ofenforcingmoraldutiesandrestrainingvice，withintheirownterritory?Andthisisthepresentcase，thatofCohenbeingundertheancientandgenerallawofgaming。CananygoodbeeffectedbytakingfromtheStatesthemoralruleoftheircitizens，andsubordinatingittothegeneralauthority，ortooneoftheircorporations，whichmayjustifyforcingthemeaningofwords，huntingafterpossibleconstructions，andhanginginferenceoninference，fromheaventoearth，likeJacob’sladder?Suchanintentionwasimpossible，andsuchalicentiousnessofconstructionandinference，ifexercisedbybothgovernments，asmaybedonewithequalright，wouldequallyauthorizebothtoclaimallpower，generalandparticular，andbreakupthefoundationsoftheUnion。Lawsaremadeformenofordinaryunderstanding，andshould，therefore，beconstruedbytheordinaryrulesofcommonsense。Theirmeaningisnottobesoughtforinmetaphysicalsubtleties，whichmaymakeanythingmeaneverythingornothing，atpleasure。Itshouldbelefttothesophismsofadvocates，whosetradeitis，toprovethatadefendantisaplaintiff，thoughdraggedintocourt，_tortocollo_，likeBonaparte’svolunteers，intothefieldinchains，orthatapowerhasbeengiven，becauseitoughttohavebeengiven，_etaliatalia_。TheStatessupposedthatbytheirtenthamendment，theyhadsecuredthemselvesagainstconstructivepowers。TheywerenotlessonedyetbyCohen’scase，norawareoftheslipperinessoftheeelsofthelaw。IaskfornostrainingofwordsagainsttheGeneralGovernment，noryetagainsttheStates。IbelievetheStatescanbestgovernourhomeconcerns，andtheGeneralGovernmentourforeignones。Iwish，therefore，toseemaintainedthatwholesomedistributionofpowersestablishedbytheconstitutionforthelimitationofboth；andnevertoseeallofficestransferredtoWashington，where，furtherwithdrawnfromtheeyesofthepeople，theymaymoresecretlybeboughtandsoldasatmarket。
　　ButtheChiefJusticesays，”theremustbeanultimatearbitersomewhere。”True，theremust；butdoesthatproveitiseitherparty?
　　TheultimatearbiteristhepeopleoftheUnion，assembledbytheirdeputiesinconvention，atthecallofCongress，oroftwo-thirdsoftheStates。Letthemdecidetowhichtheymeantogiveanauthorityclaimedbytwooftheirorgans。Andithasbeenthepeculiarwisdomandfelicityofourconstitution，tohaveprovidedthispeaceableappeal，wherethatofothernationsisatoncetoforce。
　　Irejoiceintheexampleyousetof_seriatim_opinions。I
　　havehearditoftennoticed，andalwayswithhighapprobation。Someofyourbrethrenwillbeencouragedtofollowitoccasionally，andintime，itmaybefeltbyallasaduty，andthesoundpracticeoftheprimitivecourtbeagainrestored。Whyshouldnoteveryjudgebeaskedhisopinion，andgiveitfromthebench，ifonlybyyeaornay?
　　Besidesascertainingthefactofhisopinion，whichthepublichavearighttoknow，inordertojudgewhetheritisimpeachableornot，itwouldshowwhethertheopinionswereunanimousornot，andthussettlemoreexactlytheweightoftheirauthority。
　　Thecloseofmysecondsheetwarnsmethatitistimenowtorelieveyoufromthisletterofunmercifullength。Indeed，IwonderhowIhaveaccomplishedit，withtwocrippledwrists，theonescarcelyabletomovemypen，theothertoholdmypaper。ButIamhurriedsometimesbeyondthesenseofpain，whenunbosomingmyselftofriendswhoharmonizewithmeinprinciple。YouandImaydifferoccasionallyindetailsofminorconsequence，asnotwominds，morethantwofaces，arethesameineveryfeature。Butourgeneralobjectsarethesame，topreservetherepublicanformandprinciplesofourconstitutionandcleavetothesalutarydistributionofpowerswhichthathasestablished。ThesearethetwosheetanchorsofourUnion。Ifdrivenfromeither，weshallbeindangeroffoundering。
　　Tomyprayersforitssafetyandperpetuity，Iaddthoseforthecontinuationofyourhealth，happiness，andusefulnesstoyourcountry。”RIVERSOFBLOODMUSTYETFLOW”
　　_ToJohnAdams_
　　_Monticello，Sep。4，1823_
　　DEARSIR，——YourletterofAug。15。wasrecievedinduetime，andwiththewelcomeofeverythingwhichcomesfromyou。Withit’sopinionsonthedifficultiesofrevolutions，fromdespotismtofreedom，Iverymuchconcur。Thegenerationwhichcommencesarevolutioncanrarelycompleatit。Habituatedfromtheirinfancytopassivesubmissionofbodyandmindtotheirkingsandpriests，theyarenotqualified，whencalledon，tothinkandprovideforthemselvesandtheirinexperience，theirignoranceandbigotrymaketheminstrumentsoften，inthehandsoftheBonapartesandIturbidestodefeattheirownrightsandpurposes。ThisisthepresentsituationofEuropeandSpanishAmerica。Butitisnotdesperate。
　　Thelightwhichhasbeenshedonmankindbytheartofprintinghaseminentlychangedtheconditionoftheworld。AsyetthatlighthasdawnedonthemidlingclassesonlyofthemenofEurope。Thekingsandtherabbleofequalignorance，havenotyetrecievedit’srays；
　　butitcontinuestospread。And，whileprintingispreserved，itcannomorerecedethanthesunreturnonhiscourse。Afirstattempttorecovertherightofself-governmentmayfail；somaya2d。a3d。
　　etc。，butasayounger，andmoreinstructedracecomeson，thesentimentbecomesmoreandmoreintuitive，anda4th。a5th。orsomesubsequentoneoftheeverrenewedattemptswillultimatelysucceed。
　　InFrancethe1st。effortwasdefeatedbyRobespierre，the2d。byBonaparte，the3d。byLouisXVIII。andhisholyallies；anotherisyettocome，andallEurope，Russiaexcepted，hascaughtthespirit，andallwillattainrepresentativegovernment，moreorlessperfect。