willmakeitoneofthecornerstonesoftheirnewbuilding。Butitisverydoubtfulwhethertheantientlawswillcondemnhim，andwhetherthepeoplewillpermithimtobeacquitted。TheDukedelaVauguyonalso&hissonaretakenatHavre——IndrawingtheparallelbetweenwhatEnglandis，&whatFranceistobeIforgottoobservethatthelatterwillhavearealconstitution，whichcannotbechangedbytheordinarylegislature；whereasEnglandhasnoconstitutionatall：thatistosaythereisnotoneprincipleoftheirgovernmentwhichtheparliamentdoesnotalteratpleasure。
　　Theomnipotenceofparliamentisanestablishedprinciplewiththem——
　　PostponingmydeparturetoAmericatilltheendofSeptemberI
　　shallhopetohavethepleasureofseeingyouatParisbeforeIgo，&
　　ofrenewinginpersontoyourself&MadamelaComtesseassurancesofthosesentimentsofrespect&attachmentwithwhichIhavethehonortobeDearSiryourmostobedienthumbleserv’t。
　　P。S。Itisrumored&beleivedinParisthattheEnglishhavefomentedwithmoneythetumultsofthisplace，&thattheyarearmingtoattackFrance。Ihaveneverseenanyreasontobelieveeitheroftheserumors。”THEEARTHBELONGSTOTHELIVING”
　　_ToJamesMadison_
　　_Paris，September6，1789_
　　DEARSIR，——IsitdowntowritetoyouwithoutknowingbywhatoccasionIshallsendmyletter。IdoitbecauseasubjectcomesintomyheadwhichIwouldwishtodevelopealittlemorethanispracticableinthehurryofthemomentofmakingupgeneraldespatches。
　　ThequestionWhetheronegenerationofmenhasarighttobindanother，seemsnevertohavebeenstartedeitheronthisoroursideofthewater。Yetitisaquestionofsuchconsequencesasnotonlytomeritdecision，butplacealso，amongthefundamentalprinciplesofeverygovernment。Thecourseofreflectioninwhichweareimmersedhereontheelementaryprinciplesofsocietyhaspresentedthisquestiontomymind；andthatnosuchobligationcanbetransmittedIthinkverycapableofproof。IsetoutonthisgroundwhichIsupposetobeselfevident，”_thattheearthbelongsinusufructtotheliving_；”thatthedeadhaveneitherpowersnorrightsoverit。Theportionoccupiedbyanindividualceasestobehiswhenhimselfceasestobe，andrevertstothesociety。Ifthesocietyhasformednorulesfortheappropriationofitslandsinseveralty，itwillbetakenbythefirstoccupants。Thesewillgenerallybethewifeandchildrenofthedecedent。Iftheyhaveformedrulesofappropriation，thoserulesmaygiveittothewifeandchildren，ortosomeoneofthem，ortothelegateeofthedeceased。Sotheymaygiveittohiscreditor。Butthechild，thelegateeorcreditortakesit，notbyanynaturalright，butbyalawofthesocietyofwhichtheyaremembers，andtowhichtheyaresubject。Thennomancanby_naturalright_obligethelandsheoccupied，orthepersonswhosucceedhiminthatoccupation，tothepaimentofdebtscontractedbyhim。Forifhecould，hemightduringhisownlife，eatuptheusufructofthelandsforseveralgenerationstocome，andthenthelandswouldbelongtothedead，andnottotheliving，whichwouldbereverseofourprinciple。Whatistrueofeverymemberofthesocietyindividually，istrueofthemallcollectively，sincetherightsofthewholecanbenomorethanthesumoftherightsofindividuals。Tokeepourideasclearwhenapplyingthemtoamultitude，letussupposeawholegenerationofmentobebornonthesameday，toattainmatureageonthesameday，andtodieonthesameday，leavingasucceedinggenerationinthemomentofattainingtheirmatureagealltogether。Lettheripeagebesupposedof21。years，andtheirperiodoflife34。yearsmore，thatbeingtheaveragetermgivenbythebillsofmortalitytopersonswhohavealreadyattained21。yearsofage。Eachsuccessivegenerationwould，inthisway，comeonandgooffthestageatafixedmoment，asindividualsdonow。ThenIsaytheearthbelongstoeachofthesegenerationsduringit’scourse，fully，andintheirownright。The2d。generationreceivesitclearofthedebtsandincumbrancesofthe1st。，the3d。ofthe2d。andsoon。Forifthe1st。couldchargeitwithadebt，thentheearthwouldbelongtothedeadandnotthelivinggeneration。Thennogenerationcancontractdebtsgreaterthanmaybepaidduringthecourseofit’sownexistence。At21。yearsofagetheymaybindthemselvesandtheirlandsfor34。yearstocome：at22。for33：at23for32。andat54
　　foroneyearonly；becausethesearethetermsoflifewhichremaintothematthoserespectiveepochs。Butamaterialdifferencemustbenotedbetweenthesuccessionofanindividualandthatofawholegeneration。Individualsarepartsonlyofasociety，subjecttothelawsofawhole。Theselawsmayappropriatetheportionoflandoccupiedbyadecedenttohiscreditorratherthantoanyother，ortohischild，onconditionhesatisfieshiscreditor。Butwhenawholegeneration，thatis，thewholesocietydies，asinthecasewehavesupposed，andanothergenerationorsocietysucceeds，thisformsawhole，andthereisnosuperiorwhocangivetheirterritorytoathirdsociety，whomayhavelentmoneytotheirpredecessorsbeyondtheirfacultyofpaying。
　　Whatistrueofagenerationallarrivingtoself-governmentonthesameday，anddyingallonthesameday，istrueofthoseonaconstantcourseofdecayandrenewal，withthisonlydifference。A
　　generationcominginandgoingoutentire，asinthefirstcase，wouldhavearightinthe1styearoftheirselfdominiontocontractadebtfor33。years，inthe10th。for24。inthe20th。for14。inthe30th。for4。whereasgenerationschangingdaily，bydailydeathsandbirths，haveoneconstanttermbeginningatthedateoftheircontract，andendingwhenamajorityofthoseoffullageatthatdateshallbedead。Thelengthofthattermmaybeestimatedfromthetablesofmortality，correctedbythecircumstancesofclimate，occupation&c。peculiartothecountryofthecontractors。Take，forinstance，thetableofM。deBuffonwhereinhestatesthat23，994
　　deaths，andtheagesatwhichtheyhappened。Supposeasocietyinwhich23，994personsareborneveryyearandlivetotheagesstatedinthistable。Theconditionsofthatsocietywillbeasfollows。
　　1st。itwillconsistconstantlyof617，703personsofallages。2dly。
　　ofthoselivingatanyoneinstantoftime，onehalfwillbedeadin24。years8。months。3dly。10，675willarriveeveryyearattheageof21。yearscomplete。4thly。itwillconstantlyhave348，417personsofallagesabove21。years。5ly。andthehalfofthoseof21。yearsandupwardslivingatanyoneinstantoftimewillbedeadin18。
　　years8。months，orsay19。yearsasthenearestintegralnumber。
　　Then19。yearsisthetermbeyondwhichneithertherepresentativesofanation，noreventhewholenationitselfassembled，canvalidlyextendadebt。
　　Torenderthisconclusionpalpablebyexample，supposethatLouisXIV。andXV。hadcontracteddebtsinthenameoftheFrenchnationtotheamountof10。000milliardsoflivresandthatthewholehadbeencontractedinGenoa。Theinterestofthissumwouldbe500
　　milliards，whichissaidtobethewholerent-roll，ornettproceedsoftheterritoryofFrance。Mustthepresentgenerationofmenhaveretiredfromtheterritoryinwhichnatureproducedthem，andcededittotheGenoesecreditors?No。Theyhavethesamerightsoverthesoilonwhichtheywereproduced，astheprecedinggenerationshad。
　　Theyderivetheserightsnotfromtheirpredecessors，butfromnature。Theythenandtheirsoilarebynatureclearofthedebtsoftheirpredecessors。AgainsupposeLouisXV。andhiscontemporarygenerationhadsaidtothemoneylendersofGenoa，giveusmoneythatwemayeat，drink，andbemerryinourday；andonconditionyouwilldemandnointeresttilltheendof19。years，youshallthenforeverafterreceiveanannualinterestof*12。’5percent。Themoneyislentontheseconditions，isdividedamongtheliving，eaten，drank，andsquandered。Wouldthepresentgenerationbeobligedtoapplytheproduceoftheearthandoftheirlabourtoreplacetheirdissipations?Notatall。
　　*100poundatacompoundinterestof6percentmakesattheendof19yearsanaggregateofprincipalandinterestofpound252。14theinterestofwhichisapound12degreesdegrees。12”。
　　7’d。whichisnearly12”。p’r。centonthefirstcapitalofpound100。
　　Isupposethatthereceivedopinion，thatthepublicdebtsofonegenerationdevolveonthenext，hasbeensuggestedbyourseeinghabituallyinprivatelifethathewhosucceedstolandsisrequiredtopaythedebtsofhisancestorortestator，withoutconsideringthatthisrequisitionismunicipalonly，notmoral，flowingfromthewillofthesocietywhichhasfounditconvenienttoappropriatethelandsbecomevacantbythedeathoftheiroccupantontheconditionofapaimentofhisdebts；butthatbetweensocietyandsociety，orgenerationandgenerationthereisnomunicipalobligation，noumpirebutthelawofnature。Weseemnottohaveperceivedthat，bythelawofnature，onegenerationistoanotherasoneindependantnationtoanother。”
　　TheinterestofthenationaldebtofFrancebeinginfactbutatwothousandthpartofit’srent-roll，thepaimentofitispracticableenough；andsobecomesaquestionmerelyofhonororexpediency。Butwithrespecttofuturedebts；woulditnotbewiseandjustforthatnationtodeclareintheconstitutiontheyareformingthatneitherthelegislature，northenationitselfcanvalidlycontractmoredebt，thantheymaypaywithintheirownage，orwithinthetermof19。years?Andthatallfuturecontractsshallbedeemedvoidastowhatshallremainunpaidattheendof19。yearsfromtheirdate?Thiswouldputthelenders，andtheborrowersalso，ontheirguard。Byreducingtoothefacultyofborrowingwithinitsnaturallimits，itwouldbridlethespiritofwar，towhichtoofreeacoursehasbeenprocuredbytheinattentionofmoneylenderstothislawofnature，thatsucceedinggenerationsarenotresponsibleforthepreceding。
　　Onsimilargrounditmaybeprovedthatnosocietycanmakeaperpetualconstitution，orevenaperpetuallaw。Theearthbelongsalwaystothelivinggeneration。Theymaymanageitthen，andwhatproceedsfromit，astheyplease，duringtheirusufruct。Theyaremasterstoooftheirownpersons，andconsequentlymaygovernthemastheyplease。Butpersonsandpropertymakethesumoftheobjectsofgovernment。Theconstitutionandthelawsoftheirpredecessorsextinguishedthem，intheirnaturalcourse，withthosewhosewillgavethembeing。Thiscouldpreservethatbeingtillitceasedtobeitself，andnolonger。Everyconstitution，then，andeverylaw，naturallyexpiresattheendof19。years。Ifitbeenforcedlonger，itisanactofforceandnotofright。
　　Itmaybesaidthatthesucceedinggenerationexercisinginfactthepowerofrepeal，thisleavesthemasfreeasiftheconstitutionorlawhadbeenexpresslylimitedto19。yearsonly。Inthefirstplace，thisobjectionadmitstheright，inproposinganequivalent。Butthepowerofrepealisnotanequivalent。Itmightbeindeedifeveryformofgovernmentweresoperfectlycontrivedthatthewillofthemajoritycouldalwaysbeobtainedfairlyandwithoutimpediment。Butthisistrueofnoform。Thepeoplecannotassemblethemselves；theirrepresentationisunequalandvicious。
　　Variouschecksareopposedtoeverylegislativeproposition。
　　Factionsgetpossessionofthepubliccouncils。Briberycorruptsthem。Personalinterestsleadthemastrayfromthegeneralinterestsoftheirconstituents；andotherimpedimentsarisesoastoprovetoeverypracticalmanthatalawoflimiteddurationismuchmoremanageablethanonewhichneedsarepeal。
　　Thisprinciplethattheearthbelongstothelivingandnottothedeadisofveryextensiveapplicationandconsequencesineverycountry，andmostespeciallyinFrance。ItentersintotheresolutionofthequestionsWhetherthenationmaychangethedescentoflandsholdenintail?Whethertheymaychangetheappropriationoflandsgivenantientlytothechurch，tohospitals，colleges，ordersofchivalry，andotherwiseinperpetuity?whethertheymayabolishthechargesandprivilegesattachedonlands，includingthewholecatalogueecclesiasticalandfeudal?itgoestohereditaryoffices，authoritiesandjurisdictions；tohereditaryorders，distinctionsandappellations；toperpetualmonopoliesincommerce，theartsorsciences；withalongtrainof_etceteras_：anditrendersthequestionofreimbursementaquestionofgenerosityandnotofright。Inallthesecasesthelegislatureofthedaycouldauthorizesuchappropriationsandestablishmentsfortheirowntime，butnolonger；andthepresentholders，evenwheretheyortheirancestorshavepurchased，areinthecaseof_bonafide_purchasersofwhatthesellerhadnorighttoconvey。
　　Turnthissubjectinyourmind，myDearSir，andparticularlyastothepowerofcontractingdebts，anddevelopeitwiththatperspicuityandcogentlogicwhichissopeculiarlyyours。Yourstationinthecouncilsofourcountrygivesyouanopportunityofproducingittopublicconsideration，offorcingitintodiscussion。