Pennsylvania，Jersey&NYorkarecomingmajesticallyroundtothetrueprinciples。InPensylva，13。outof22。countieshadalreadypetitionedonthealien&seditionlaws。Jersey&NYhadbegunthesamemovement，andtho’therisingofCongressstopsthatchannelfortheexpressionoftheirsentiment，thesentimentisgoingonrapidly，&beforetheirnextmeetingthosethreeStateswillbesolidlyembodiedinsentimentwiththesixSouthern&Westernones。TheatrociousproceedingsofFrancetowardsthiscountry，hadwellnighdestroyeditsliberties。TheAnglomenandmonocratshadsoartfullyconfoundedthecauseofFrancewiththatoffreedom，thatbothwentdowninthesamescale。Isincerelyjoinyouinabjuringallpoliticalconnectionwitheveryforeignpower；andthoIcordiallywishwelltotheprogressoflibertyinallnations，andwouldforevergiveittheweightofourcountenance，yettheyarenottobetouchedwithoutcontaminationfromtheirotherbadprinciples。
Commercewithallnations，alliancewithnone，shouldbeourmotto。
Acceptassurancesoftheconstant&unalteredaffectionof，dearSir，yoursincerefriendandservant。
FREEDOMOFMIND
_ToWilliamGreenMunford_
_Monticello，June18，1799_
DEARSIR——IhavetoacknolegetherecieptofyourfavorofMay14inwhichyoumentionthatyouhavefinishedthe6。firstbooksofEuclid，planetrigonometry，surveying&algebraandaskwhetherI
thinkafurtherpursuitofthatbranchofsciencewouldbeusefultoyou。TherearesomepropositionsinthelatterbooksofEuclid，&
someofArchimedes，whichareuseful，&Ihavenodoubtyouhavebeenmadeacquaintedwiththem。Trigonometry，sofarasthis，ismostvaluabletoeveryman。Thereisscarcelyadayinwhichhewillnotresorttoitforsomeofthepurposesofcommonlife。Thescienceofcalculationalsoisindispensibleasfarastheextractionofthesquare&cuberoots；algebraasfarasthequadraticequation&theuseoflogarithmsareoftenofvalueinordinarycases：butallbeyondtheseisbutaluxury；adeliciousluxuryindeed；butnottobeindulgedinbyonewhoistohaveaprofessiontofollowforhissubsistence。InthislightIviewtheconicsections，curvesofthehigherorders，perhapsevensphericaltrigonometry，algebraicaloperationsbeyondthe2ddimension，andfluxions。Thereareotherbranchesofsciencehoweverworththeattentionofeveryman。
Astronomy，botany，chemistry，naturalphilosophy，naturalhistory，anatomy。Notindeedtobeaproficientinthem；buttopossesstheirgeneralprinciples&outlines，soasthatwemaybeabletoamuseandinformourselvesfurtherinanyofthemasweproceedthroughlife&
haveoccasionforthem。Someknowledgeofthemisnecessaryforourcharacteraswellascomfort。Thegeneralelementsofastronomy&ofnaturalphilosophyarebestacquiredatanacademywherewecanhavethebenefitoftheinstruments&apparatususuallyprovidedthere：
buttheothersmaywellbeacquiredfrombooksaloneasfarasourpurposesrequire。Ihaveindulgedmyselfintheseobservationstoyou，becausetheevidencecannotbeunusefultoyouofapersonwhohasoftenhadoccasiontoconsiderwhichofhisacquisitionsinsciencehavebeenreallyusefultohiminlife，andwhichofthemhavebeenmerelyamatterofluxury。
Iamamongthosewhothinkwellofthehumancharactergenerally。Iconsidermanasformedforsociety，andendowedbynaturewiththosedispositionswhichfithimforsociety。Ibelievealso，withCondorcet，asmentionedinyourletter，thathismindisperfectibletoadegreeofwhichwecannotasyetformanyconception。Itisimpossibleforamanwhotakesasurveyofwhatisalreadyknown，nottoseewhatanimmensityineverybranchofscienceyetremainstobediscovered，&thattooofarticlestowhichourfacultiesseemadequate。Ingeometry&calculationweknowagreatdeal。Yettherearesomedesiderata。Inanatomygreatprogresshasbeenmade；butmuchisstilltobeacquired。Innaturalhistorywepossessknowlege；butwewantagreatdeal。Inchemistrywearenotyetsureofthefirstelements。Ournaturalphilosophyisinaveryinfantinestate；perhapsforgreatadvancesinit，afurtherprogressinchemistryisnecessary。Surgeryiswelladvanced；butprodigiouslyshortofwhatmaybe。Thestateofmedecineisworsethanthatoftotalignorance。Couldwedivestourselvesofeverythingwesupposeweknowinit，weshouldstartfromahigherground&withfairerprospects。FromHippocratestoBrownwehavehadnothingbutasuccessionofhypotheticalsystemseachhavingit’sdayofvogue，likethefashions&fanciesofcaps&
gowns，&yieldinginturntothenextcaprice。Yetthehumanframe，whichistobethesubjectofsuffering&tortureundertheselearnedmodes，doesnotchange。Wehaveafewmedecines，asthebark，opium，mercury，whichinafewwelldefineddiseasesareofunquestionablevirtue：buttheresiduarylistofthemateriamedica，longasitis，containsbutthecharlataneriesoftheart；andofthediseasesofdoubtfulform，physicianshaveeverhadafalseknowlege，worsethanignorance。Yetsurelythelistofunequivocaldiseases&remediesiscapableofenlargement；anditisstillmorecertainthatintheotherbranchesofscience，greatfieldsareyettobeexploredtowhichourfacultiesareequal，&thattoanextentofwhichwecannotfixthelimits。Ijoinyouthereforeinbrandingascowardlytheideathatthehumanmindisincapableoffurtheradvances。Thisispreciselythedoctrinewhichthepresentdespotsoftheearthareinculcating，&theirfriendsherere-echoing；&applyingespeciallytoreligion&politics；`thatitisnotprobablethatanythingbetterwillbediscoveredthanwhatwasknowntoourfathers。’Wearetolookbackwardsthen¬forwardsfortheimprovementofscience，&tofinditamidstfeudalbarbarismsandthefiresofSpital-fields。
ButthankheaventheAmericanmindisalreadytoomuchopened，tolistentotheseimpostures；andwhiletheartofprintingislefttous，sciencecanneverberetrograde；whatisonceacquiredofrealknowlegecanneverbelost。Topreservethefreedomofthehumanmindthen&freedomofthepress，everyspiritshouldbereadytodevoteitselftomartyrdom；foraslongaswemaythinkaswewill，&
speakaswethink，theconditionofmanwillproceedinimprovement。
Thegenerationwhichisgoingoffthestagehasdeservedwellofmankindforthestrugglesithasmade，&forhavingarrestedthatcourseofdespotismwhichhadoverwhelmedtheworldforthousands&
thousandsofyears。Ifthereseemstobedangerthatthegroundtheyhavegainedwillbelostagain，thatdangercomesfromthegenerationyourcotemporary。Butthattheenthusiasmwhichcharacterisesyouthshouldliftitsparricidehandsagainstfreedom&science，wouldbesuchamonstrousphaenomenonasIcannotplaceamongpossiblethingsinthisage&thiscountry。Yourcollegeatleasthasshewnitselfincapableofit；andiftheyouthofanyotherplacehaveseemedtorallyunderotherbannersithasbeenfromdelusionswhichtheywillsoondissipate。Ishallbehappytohearfromyoufromtimetotime，&ofyourprogressinstudy，andtobeusefultoyouinwhateverisinmypower；beingwithsincereesteemDearSiryourfriend&servtCOMMONLAWANDTHEWILLOFTHENATION
_ToEdmundRandolph_
_Monticello，Aug。18，1799_
DEARSIR，——Ireceivedonlytwodaysagoyourfavorofthe12th，andasitwasontheeveofthereturnofourpost，itwasnotpossibletomakesopromptadespatchoftheanswer。Ofallthedoctrineswhichhaveeverbeenbroachedbythefederalgovernment，thenovelone，ofthecommonlawbeinginforce&cognizableasanexistinglawintheircourts，istomethemostformidable。Alltheirotherassumptionsofun-givenpowershavebeeninthedetail。
Thebanklaw，thetreatydoctrine，theseditionact，alienact，theundertakingtochangethestatelawsofevidenceinthestatecourtsbycertainpartsofthestampact，&c。，&c。，havebeensolitary，unconsequential，timidthings，incomparisonwiththeaudacious，barefacedandsweepingpretensiontoasystemoflawfortheUS，withouttheadoptionoftheirlegislature，andsoinfinitivelybeyondtheirpowertoadopt。Ifthisassumptionbeyieldedto，thestatecourtsmaybeshutup，astherewillthenbenothingtohindercitizensofthesamestatesuingeachotherinthefederalcourtsineverycase，asonabondforinstance，becausethecommonlawobligespaymentofit，&thecommonlawtheysayistheirlaw。Iamhappyyouhavetakenupthesubject；&Ihavecarefullyperused&
consideredthenotesyouenclosed，andfindbutasingleparagraphwhichIdonotapprove。Itisthatwhereinpage2。yousay，thatlawsbeingemanationsfromthelegislativedepartment，&，whenonceenacted，continuinginforcefromapresumptionthattheirwillsocontinues，thatthatpresumptionfails&thelawsofcoursefall，onthedestructionofthatlegislativedepartment。Idonotthinkthisisthetruebottomonwhichlaws&theadministeringthemrest。Thewholebodyofthenationisthesovereignlegislative，judiciaryandexecutivepowerforitself。Theinconvenienceofmeetingtoexercisethesepowersinperson，andtheirinaptitudetoexercisethem，inducethemtoappointspecialorganstodeclaretheirlegislativewill，tojudge&toexecuteit。Itisthewillofthenationwhichmakesthelawobligatory；itistheirwillwhichcreatesorannihilatestheorganwhichistodeclare&announceit。Theymaydoitbyasingleperson，asanEmperorofRussia，constitutinghisdeclarationsevidenceoftheirwill，orbyafewpersons，astheAristocracyofVenice，orbyacomplicationofcouncils，asinourformerregalgovernment，orourpresentrepublicanone。Thelawbeinglawbecauseitisthewillofthenation，isnotchangedbytheirchangingtheorganthroughwhichtheychusetoannouncetheirfuturewill；nomorethantheactsIhavedonebyoneattorneylosetheirobligationbymychangingordiscontinuingthatattorney。Thisdoctrinehasbeen，inacertaindegreesanctionedbythefederalexecutive。ForitispreciselythatonwhichthecontinuanceofobligationfromourtreatywithFrancewasestablished，andthedoctrinewasparticularlydevelopedinalettertoGouverneurMorris，writtenwiththeapprobationofPresidentWashingtonandhiscabinet。MerceronceprevailedontheVirginiaAssemblytodeclareadifferentdoctrineinsomeresolutions。Thesemetuniversaldisapprobationinthis，aswellastheotherStates，andifImistakenot，asubsequentAssemblydidsomethingtodoawaytheauthorityoftheirformerunguardedresolutions。Inthiscase，asinallothers，thetrueprinciplewillbequiteaseffectualtoestablishthejustdeductions，forbeforetherevolution，thenationofVirginiahad，bytheorganstheythenthoughtpropertoconstitute，establishedasystemoflaws，whichtheydividedintothreedenominationsof1，commonlaw；2，statutelaw；3，Chancery：orifyouplease，intotwoonly，of1，commonlaw；
2，Chancery。When，bythedeclarationofIndependence，theychosetoabolishtheirformerorgansofdeclaringtheirwill，theactsofwillalreadyformally&constitutionallydeclared，remaineduntouched。
Forthenationwasnotdissolved，wasnotannihilated；it’swill，therefore，remainedinfullvigor；andontheestablishingtheneworgans，firstofaconvention，&afterwardsamorecomplicatedlegislature，theoldactsofnationalwillcontinuedinforce，untilthenationshould，byitsneworgans，declareit’swillchanged。Thecommonlaw，therefore，whichwasnotinforcewhenwelandedhere，nortillwehadformedourselvesintoanation，andhadmanifestedbytheorgansweconstitutedthatthecommonlawwastobeourlaw，continuedtobeourlaw，becausethenationcontinuedinbeing，&
becausethoughitchangedtheorgansforthefuturedeclarationsofitswill，yetitdidnotchangeitsformerdeclarationsthatthecommonlawwasit’slaw。Applytheseprinciplestothepresentcase。
BeforetherevolutionthereexistednosuchnationastheUS；theythenfirstassociatedasanation，butforspecialpurposesonly。
Theyhadalltheirlawstomake，asVirginiahadonherfirstestablishmentasanation。Buttheydidnot，asVirginiahaddone，proceedtoadoptawholesystemoflawsreadymadetotheirhand。Astheirassociationasanationwasonlyforspecialpurposes，towit，forthemanagementoftheirconcernswithoneanother&withforeignnations，andthestatescomposingtheassociationchosetogiveitpowersforthosepurposes&noothers，theycouldnotadoptanygeneralsystem，becauseitwouldhaveembracedobjectsonwhichthisassociationhadnorighttoformordeclareawill。Itwasnottheorganfordeclaringanationalwillinthesecases。Inthecasesconfidedtothem，theywerefreetodeclarethewillofthenation，thelaw；buttillitwasdeclaredtherecouldbenolaw。Sothatthecommonlawdidnotbecome，ipsofacto，lawonthenewassociation；itcouldonlybecomesobyapositiveadoption，&sofaronlyastheywereauthorizedtoadopt。
Ithinkitwillbeofgreatimportance，whenyoucometotheproperpart，toportrayatfulllengththeconsequencesofthisnewdoctrine，thatthecommonlawisthelawoftheUS，&thattheircourtshave，ofcourse，jurisdictionco-extensivewiththatlaw，thatistosay，generaloverallcases&persons。But，greatheavens！
Whocouldhaveconceivedin1789thatwithintenyearsweshouldhavetocombatsuchwindmills。Adieu。Yoursaffectionately。
IDEASFORAUNIVERSITY
_ToDr。JosephPriestley_
_Philadelphia，Jan。18，1800_
DEARSIR，——Ihavetothankyouforthepamphletsyouweresokindastosendme。YouwillknowwhatIthoughtofthembymyhavingbeforesentadozensetstoVirginiatodistributeamongmyfriends。YetIthankyounotthelessforthese，whichIvaluethemoreastheycamefromyourself。ThestockofthemwhichCampbellhadwas，Ibelieve，exhaustedthefirstorseconddayofadvertisingthem。ThePapersofpoliticalarithmetic，bothinyour&Mr。
Cooper’spamphlets，arethemostpreciousgiftsthatcanbemadetous；forwearerunningnavigationmad，&commercemad，&navymad，whichisworstofall。Howdesirableisitthatyoucouldpursuethatsubjectforus。FromthePorcupinesofourcountryyouwillreceivenothanks；butthegreatmassofournationwilledify&
thankyou。HowdeeplyhaveIbeenchagrined&mortifiedatthepersecutionswhichfanaticism&monarchyhaveexcitedagainstyou，evenhere！AtfirstIbelieveditwasmerelyacontinuanceoftheEnglishpersecution。ButIobservethatonthedemiseofPorcupine&
divisionofhisinheritancebetweenFenno&Brown，thelattertho’
succeedingonlytothe_federal_portionofPorcupinism，notthe_Anglican_，whichisFenno’spartservesupforthepalateofhissect，dishesofabuseagainstyouashighseasonedasPorcupine’swere。Youhavesinnedagainstchurch&king，&canthereforeneverbeforgiven。HowsincerelyhaveIregrettedthatyourfriend，beforehefixedhischoiceofaposition，didnotvisitthevalliesoneachsideoftheblueridgeinVirginia，asMr。Madison&myselfsomuchwished。Youwouldhavefoundthereequalsoil，thefinestclimate&
mosthealthyoneontheearth，thehomageofuniversalreverence&
love，&thepowerofthecountryspreadoveryouasashield。Butsinceyouwouldnotmakeityourcountrybyadoption，youmustnowdoitbyyourgoodoffices。Ihaveonetoproposetoyouwhichwillproducetheirgood，&gratitudetoyouforages，andinthewaytowhichyouhavedevotedalonglife，thatofspreadinglightamongmen。
WehaveinthatstateacollegeWm。&Maryjustwellenoughendowedtodrawoutthemiserableexistencetowhichamiserableconstitutionhasdoomedit。Itismoreovereccentricinit’sposition，exposedtobiliousdiseasesasallthelowercountryis，&