Amongthatsectionofourcitizenscalledfederalists，therearethreeshadesofopinion。Distinguishingbetweenthe_leaders_
　　and_people_whocomposeit，the_leaders_considertheEnglishconstitutionasamodelofperfection，some，withacorrectionofitsvices，others，withallitscorruptionsandabuses。ThislastwasAlexanderHamilton’sopinion，whichothers，aswellasmyself，haveoftenheardhimdeclare，andthatacorrectionofwhatarecalleditsvices，wouldrendertheEnglishanimpracticablegovernment。Thisgovernmenttheywishedtohaveestablishedhere，andonlyacceptedandheldfast，_atfirst_，tothepresentconstitution，asastepping-stonetothefinalestablishmentoftheirfavoritemodel。
　　ThispartythereforealwaysclungtoEnglandastheirprototype，andgreatauxiliaryinpromotingandeffectingthischange。AweightyMINORITY，however，ofthese_leaders_，consideringthevoluntaryconversionofourgovernmentintoamonarchyastoodistant，ifnotdesperate，wishtobreakofffromourUnionitseasternfragment，asbeing，intruth，thehot-bedofAmericanmonarchism，withaviewtoacommencementoftheirfavoritegovernment，fromwhencetheotherStatesmaygangrenebydegrees，andthewholebethusbroughtfinallytothedesiredpoint。ForMassachusetts，theprimemoverinthisenterprise，isthelastStateintheUniontomeana_final_
　　separation，asbeingofallthemostdependentontheothers。Notraisingbreadforthesustenanceofherowninhabitants，nothavingastickoftimberfortheconstructionofvessels，herprincipaloccupation，noranarticletoexportinthem，wherewouldshebe，excludedfromtheportsoftheotherStates，andthrownintodependenceonEngland，herdirectandnatural，butnowinsidiousrival?AttheheadofthisMINORITYiswhatiscalledtheEssexJuntoofMassachusetts。ButtheMAJORITYofthese_leaders_donotaimatseparation。Inthis，theyadheretotheknownprincipleofGeneralHamilton，never，underanyviews，tobreaktheUnion。
　　Anglomany，monarchy，andseparation，then，aretheprinciplesoftheEssexfederalists。Anglomanyandmonarchy，thoseoftheHamiltonians，andAnglomanyalone，thatoftheportionamongthe_people_whocallthemselvesfederalists。Theselastareasgoodrepublicansasthebrethrenwhomtheyoppose，anddifferfromthemonlyintheirdevotiontoEnglandandhatredofFrancewhichtheyhaveimbibedfromtheirleaders。ThemomentthattheseleadersshouldavowedlyproposeaseparationoftheUnion，ortheestablishmentofregalgovernment，theirpopularadherentswouldquitthemtoaman，andjointherepublicanstandard；andthepartisansofthischange，eveninMassachusetts，wouldthusfindthemselvesanarmyofofficerswithoutasoldier。
　　Thepartycalledrepublicanissteadilyforthesupportofthepresentconstitution。Theyobtainedatitscommencement，alltheamendmentstoittheydesired。Thesereconciledthemtoitperfectly，andiftheyhaveanyulteriorview，itisonly，perhaps，topopularizeitfurther，byshorteningtheSenatorialterm，anddevisingaprocessfortheresponsibilityofjudges，morepracticalthanthatofimpeachment。TheyesteemthepeopleofEnglandandFranceequally，andequallydetestthegoverningpowersofboth。
　　ThisIverilybelieve，afteranintimacyoffortyyearswiththepubliccouncilsandcharacters，isatruestatementofthegroundsonwhichtheyareatpresentdivided，andthatitisnotmerelyanambitionforpower。Anhonestmancanfeelnopleasureintheexerciseofpoweroverhisfellowcitizens。Andconsideringastheonlyofficesofpowerthoseconferredbythepeopledirectly，thatistosay，theexecutiveandlegislativefunctionsoftheGeneralandStategovernments，thecommonrefusaloftheseandmultipliedresignations，areproofssufficientthatpowerisnotalluringtopureminds，andisnot，withthem，theprimaryprincipleofcontest。Thisismybeliefofit；itisthatonwhichIhaveacted；andhaditbeenamerecontestwhoshouldbepermittedtoadministerthegovernmentaccordingtoitsgenuinerepublicanprinciples，therehasneverbeenamomentofmylifeinwhichI
　　shouldhaverelinquishedforittheenjoymentsofmyfamily，myfarm，myfriendsandbooks。
　　YouexpectedtodiscoverthedifferenceofourpartyprinciplesinGeneralWashington’svaledictory，andmyinauguraladdress。Notatall。GeneralWashingtondidnotharboroneprincipleoffederalism。HewasneitheranAngloman，amonarchist，noraseparatist。Hesincerelywishedthepeopletohaveasmuchself-governmentastheywerecompetenttoexercisethemselves。TheonlypointonwhichheandIeverdifferedinopinion，was，thatI
　　hadmoreconfidencethanhehadinthenaturalintegrityanddiscretionofthepeople，andinthesafetyandextenttowhichtheymighttrustthemselveswithacontrolovertheirgovernment。Hehasasseveratedtomeathousandtimeshisdeterminationthattheexistinggovernmentshouldhaveafairtrial，andthatinsupportofithewouldspendthelastdropofhisblood。Hedidthisthemorerepeatedly，becauseheknewGeneralHamilton’spoliticalbias，andmyapprehensionsfromit。Itisamerecalumny，therefore，inthemonarchists，toassociateGeneralWashingtonwiththeirprinciples。
　　Butthatmayhavehappenedinthiscasewhichhasbeenoftenseeninordinarycases，that，byoftrepeatinganuntruth，mencometobelieveitthemselves。Itisamereartificeinthispartytobolsterthemselvesuponthereverednameofthatfirstofourworthies。IfIhavedweltlongeronthissubjectthanwasnecessary，itprovestheestimationinwhichIholdyourultimateopinions，andmydesireofplacingthesubjecttrulybeforethem。Insodoing，I
　　amcertainIrisknouseofthecommunicationwhichmaydrawmeintocontentionbeforethepublic。Tranquillityisthe_summumbonum_ofaSeptagenaire。
　　Toreturntothemeritsofyourwork：Iconsideritassolivelyapictureoftherealstateofourcountry，thatifIcanpossiblyobtainopportunitiesofconveyance，IproposetosendacopytoafriendinFrance，andanothertooneinItaly，who，Iknow，willtranslateandcirculateitasanantidotetothemisrepresentationsofformertravellers。Butwhatevereffectmyprofessionofpoliticalfaithmayhaveonyourgeneralopinion，apartofmyobjectwillbeobtained，ifitsatisfiesyouastotheprinciplesofmyownaction，andofthehighrespectandconsiderationwithwhichItenderyoumysalutations。
　　TYRANTSOFLANDANDSEA
　　_ToMadamedeStael_
　　_UnitedStatesofAmerica，May24，1813_
　　Ireceivedwithgreatpleasure，mydearMadamandfriend，yourletterofNovemberthe10th，fromStockholm，andamsincerelygratifiedbytheoccasionitgivesmeofexpressingtoyouthesentimentsofhighrespectandesteemwhichIentertainforyou。Itrecallstomyremembranceahappyportionofmylife，passedinyournativecity；thentheseatofthemostamiableandpolishedsocietyoftheworld，andofwhichyourselfandyourvenerablefatherweresuchdistinguishedmembers。Butofwhatsceneshasitsincebeenthetheatre，andwithwhathavochasitoverspreadtheearth！Robespieremetthefate，andhismemorytheexecration，hesojustlymerited。
　　Therichwerehisvictims，andperishedbythousands。ItisbymillionsthatBuonapartedestroysthepoor，andheiseulogisedanddeifiedbythesycophantsevenofscience。Thesemeritmorethanthemereobliviontowhichtheywillbeconsigned；andthedaywillcomewhenajustposteritywillgivetotheirherotheonlypre-eminencehehasearned，thatofhavingbeenthegreatestofthedestroyersofthehumanrace。Whatyearofhismilitarylifehasnotconsignedamillionofhumanbeingstodeath，topovertyandwretchedness！WhatfieldinEuropemaynotraiseamonumentofthemurders，theburnings，thedesolations，thefaminesandmiseriesithaswitnessedfromhim！Andallthistoacquireareputation，whichCartoucheattainedwithlessinjurytomankind，ofbeingfearlessofGodorman。
　　Tocompleteanduniversalisethedesolationoftheglobe，ithasbeenthewillofProvidencetoraiseup，atthesametime，atyrantasunprincipledandasoverwhelming，fortheocean。NotinthepoormaniacGeorge，butinhisgovernmentandnation。Buonapartewilldie，andhistyrannieswithhim。Butanationneverdies。TheEnglishgovernmentanditspiraticalprinciplesandpractices，havenofixedtermofduration。Europefeels，andiswrithingunderthescorpionwhipsofBuonaparte。WeareassailedbythoseofEngland。
　　TheonecontinentthusplacedunderthegripeofEngland，andtheotherofBuonaparte，eachhastograpplewiththeenemyimmediatelypressingonitself。Wemustextinguishthefirekindledinourownhouse，andleavetoourfriendsbeyondthewaterthatwhichisconsumingtheirs。ItwasnottillEnglandhadtakenonethousandofourships，andimpressedintoherservicemorethansixthousandofourcitizens；tillshehaddeclared，bytheproclamationofherPrinceRegent，thatshewouldnotrepealheraggressiveorders_astous_，untilBuonaparteshouldhaverepealedhis_astoallnations_；
　　tillherminister，informalconferencewithours，declared，thatnopropositionforprotectingourseamenfrombeingimpressed，undercoloroftakingtheirown，waspracticableoradmissible；that，thedoortojusticeandtoallamicablearrangementbeingclosed，andnegotiationbecomebothdesperateanddishonorable，weconcludedthatthewarshehadbeenforyearswagingagainstus，mightaswellbecomeawaronbothsides。Shetakesfewervesselsfromussincethedeclarationofwarthanbefore，becausetheyventuremorecautiously；andwenowmakefullreprisalswherebeforewemadenone。
　　Englandis，inprinciple，theenemyofallmaritimenations，asBuonaparteisofthecontinental；andIplaceinthesamelineofinsulttothehumanunderstanding，thepretensionofconqueringtheocean，toestablishcontinentalrights，asthatofconqueringthecontinent，torestoremaritimerights。No，mydearMadam；theobjectofEnglandisthe_permanentdominionoftheocean_，andthe_monopolyofthetradeoftheworld_。Tosecurethis，shemustkeepalargerfleetthanherownresourceswillmaintain。Theresourcesofothernations，then，mustbeimpressedtosupplythedeficiencyofherown。Thisissufficientlydevelopedandevidencedbyhersuccessivestridestowardstheusurpationofthesea。Markthem，fromherfirstwarafterWilliamPittthelittle，cameintoheradministration。Shefirstforbadetoneutralsalltradewithherenemiesintimeofwar，whichtheyhadnotintimeofpeace。Thisdeprivedthemoftheirtradefromporttoportofthesamenation。
　　Thensheforbadethemtotradefromtheportofonenationtothatofanyotheratwarwithher，althougharightfullyexercisedintimeofpeace。Next，insteadoftakingvesselsonly_entering_ablockadedport，shetookthemoverthewholeocean，ifdestinedtothatport，althoughignorantoftheblockade，andwithoutintentiontoviolateit。Thenshetookthemreturningfromthatport，asifinfectedbypreviousinfractionofblockade。Thencameherpaperblockades，bywhichshemightshutupthewholeworldwithoutsendingashiptosea，excepttotakeallthosesailingonit，astheymust，ofcourse，beboundtosomeport。Andthesewerefollowedbyherordersofcouncil，forbiddingeverynationtogototheportofanyother，withoutcomingfirsttosomeportofGreatBritain，therepayingatributetoher，regulatedbythecargo，andtakingfromheralicensetoproceedtotheportofdestination；whichoperationthevesselwastorepeatwiththereturncargoonitswayhome。
　　Accordingtotheseorders，wecouldnotsendavesselfromSt。Mary’stoSt。Augustine，distantsixhours’sail，onourowncoast，withoutcrossingtheAtlanticfourtimes，twicewiththeoutwardcargo，andtwicewiththeinward。Shefoundthistoodaringandoutrageousforasinglestep，retractedastocertainarticlesofcommerce，butleftitinforceastootherswhichconstituteimportantbranchesofourexports。Andfinally，thatherviewsmaynolongerrestoninference，inarecentdebate，herministerdeclaredinopenparliament，thattheobjectofthepresentwarisa_monopolyofcommerce_。
　　Insomeoftheseatrocities，Francekeptpacewithherfullyinspeculativewrong，whichherimpotenceonlyshortenedinpracticalexecution。Thiswascalledretaliationbyboth；eachchargingtheotherwiththeinitiationoftheoutrage。Asiftwocombatantsmightretaliateonaninnocentbystander，theblowstheyreceivedfromeachother。Tomakewaronbothwouldhavebeenridiculous。Inorder，therefore，tosingleoutanyenemy，weofferedtoboth，thatifeitherwouldrevokeitshostiledecrees，andtheothershouldrefuse，wewouldinterdictallintercoursewhateverwiththatother；whichwouldbewarofcourse，asbeinganavoweddeparturefromneutrality。
　　Franceacceptedtheoffer，andrevokedherdecreesastous。Englandnotonlyrefused，butdeclaredbyasolemnproclamationofherPrinceRegent，thatshewouldnotrevokeherorders_evenastous_，untilthoseofFranceshouldbeannulled_astothewholeworld_。Wethereondeclaredwar，andwithabundantadditionalcause。
　　Inthemeantime，anexaminationbeforeparliamentoftheruinouseffectsoftheseordersonherownmanufacturers，exposingthemtothenationandtotheworld，theirPrinceissuedapalinodialproclamation，_suspending_theordersoncertainconditions，butclaimingtorenewthematpleasure，asamatterofright。Eventhismighthavepreventedthewar，ifdoneandknownherebeforeitsdeclaration。Buttheswordbeingoncedrawn，theexpenseofarmingincurred，andhostilitiesinfullcourse，itwouldhavebeenunwisetodiscontinuethem，untileffectualprovisionshouldbeagreedtobyEngland，forprotectingourcitizensonthehighseasfromimpressmentbyhernavalcommanders，througherror，voluntaryorinvoluntary；thefactbeingnotorious，thattheseofficers，enteringourshipsatseaunderpretextofsearchingfortheirseamen，whichtheyhavenorighttodobythelaworusageofnations，whichtheyneitherdo，noreverdid，astoanyothernationbutours，andwhichnonationeverbeforepretendedtodoinanycase，enteringourships，Isay，underpretextofsearchingforandtakingouttheirseamen，theytookours，nativeaswellasnaturalised，knowingthemtobeours，merelybecausetheywantedthem；insomuch，thatnoAmericancouldsafelycrosstheocean，orventuretopassbyseafromonetoanotherofourownports。ItisnotlongsincetheyimpressedatseatwonephewsofGeneralWashington，returningfromEurope，andputthem，ascommonseamen，undertheordinarydisciplineoftheirshipsofwar。TherearecertainlyotherwrongstobesettledbetweenEnglandandus；butofaminorcharacter，andsuchasaproperspirtofconciliationonbothsideswouldnotpermittocontinuethematwar。Thesword，however，canneveragainbesheathed，untilthepersonalsafetyofanAmericanontheocean，amongthemostimportantandmostvitaloftherightswepossess，iscompletelyprovidedfor。
　　Assoonasweheardofherpartialrepealofherordersofcouncil，weofferedinstantlytosuspendhostilitiesbyanarmistice，ifshewouldsuspendherimpressments，andmeetusinarrangementsforsecuringourcitizensagainstthem。Sherefusedtodoit，becauseimpracticablebyanyarrangement，asshepretends；but，intruth，becauseabodyofsixtytoeightythousandofthefinestseamenintheworld，whichwepossess，istoogreataresourceformanningherexaggeratednavy，toberelinquished，aslongasshecankeepitopen。Peaceisinherhand，whenevershewillrenouncethepracticeofaggressiononthepersonsofourcitizens。Ifshethinksitwortheternalwar，eternalwarwemusthave。Sheallegesthatthesamenessoflanguage，ofmanners，ofappearance，rendersitimpossibletodistinguishusfromhersubjects。ButbecausewespeakEnglish，andlooklikethem，arewetobepunished?Arefreeandindependentmentobesubmittedtotheirbondage?