Thewarinvolvedapersonalelementandthechargesofplagiarismwhichgivespicetoapopularcontroversy，Allparties，andcertainlytheUtilitarians，strangelyexaggeratedthevalueofthenewmethod。Theyregardedtheproposalthatchildrenshouldbepartlytaughtbyotherchildreninsteadofbeingwhollytaughtbyadultsasakindofscientificdiscoverywhichwouldenormouslysimplifyandcheapeneducation，Believersinthe’Panopticon’sawinitanotherpatentmethodofraisingthegenerallevelofintelligence，Buttherealquestionwasbetweenchurchanddissent。Wasthechurchcatechismtobeimposedornot?
　　This，aswehaveseen，wastheoccasionofBentham’sassaultuponchurchandcatechism，ontheotherside，Bell’sclaimsweresupportedwithenthusiasmbyallthetories，andbysuchmenasSoutheyandColeridge。Southey，whohaddefendedBellintheQuarterly，12undertooktobeBell’sbiographer13andliteraryexecutor。Coleridgewassovehementinthecausethatwhenlecturingupon’RomeoandJuliet’in1811，heplungedbywayofexordiumintoanassaultuponLancaster’smodesofpunishment。14DeQuinceytestifiesthathebecameapositiveboreuponBell’svirtues。
　　In1812LancasterhadgotdeeplyintodebttothetrusteesoftheSociety，whoincludedbesidesAllen，JosephFoxa’shallow，gloomybigot’accordingtoPlace——andsomeotherQuakers。Lancasterresentedtheircontrol，andin1812madeoverhisBoroughRoadschooltothem，andsetuponeofhisownatTooting。Theycontinued，however，toemployhim，andin1813formedthemselvesintothe’BritishandForeign’SchoolSociety。PlacehadknownLancasterfrom1804，andMillhadsupportedhiminthepress。Theybothbecamemembersofthecommittee，thoughPlacetookthemostactivepart。
　　HemakesmanygravechargesagainstLancaster，whomheregardedashopelesslyflightyandimpracticable，ifnotworse。Ultimatelyin1814Lancasterresignedhisposition，andnaturallyretortedthatPlacewasaninfidel。Place，meanwhile，wasillateasewiththe’gloomybigot，’ashecallsFox。Aftermanyquarrels，Foxsucceededingettingtheupperhand，andPlacefinallywithdrewfromthecommitteein1815。
　　Twootherschemesaroseoutofthis，inwhichMillwasspeciallyinterested，butwhichbothprovedabortive。MillandPlaceresolvedin1813tostarta’WestLondonLancasterianinstitution，’whichwastoeducatethewholepopulationwestoftempleBar。TheywerejoinedbyEdwardWakefield，fatheroftheEdwardGibbonWakefieldwhoinlateryearswasknownasaneconomist，andhimselfauthorofaworkofconsiderablereputation，AnAccountofIreland，StatisticalandPolitical1812。ThethreejoinedJosephFox，andultimatelyameetingwasheldinAugust1813。SirJamesMackintoshwasinthechair。Millwrotetheaddress，andmotionswereproposedbyhisfriendJosephHumeandbyWilliamAllen。Paperswerecirculated，headed’Schoolsforall，’15andtheinstitutionwaslaunchedwithasufficiencyofapplause。Butthe’gloomybigot’wassecretary。Hedeclaredthathewouldratherseetheinstitutiondestroyedthanpermitittobeusedforinfidelpurposes。TheBiblewas，ofcourse，tobereadintheschools，butFoxwishedthattheBiblealoneshouldberead。Asthecommittee，accordingtoPlace，includedfourinfidels，threeUnitarians，sixMethodists，twoBaptists，twoRomanCatholics，andseveralmembersoftheEstablishedChurch，itwashardlyahappyfamily。Toaddtotheconfusion，SirFrancisBurdett，whohadcontributedathousandpounds，hadtakenitintohisheadthatPlacewasagovernmentspy。16TheAssociation，asishardlysurprising，ceasedtoexistin1816，afterkeepingupaschooloflessthanthreehundredchildren，andendedinhopelessfailure。TheUtilitarianshadhigherhopesfromaschemeoftheirown。ThiswastheChrestomathicschoolwhichoccasionedBentham’swriting。AnassociationwasformedinFebruary1814。Mackintosh，Brougham，Mill，Allen，Fox，andWakefieldweretobetrustees。TheschoolwastoapplyLancasterianprinciplestotheeducationofthemiddleclasses，andBenthamwastosupplythemwithaphilosophyandwithasiteinhisgarden。TheretheoldgentlemanwastoseeasmallversionofthePanopticonbuilding，and，foratime，hetookgreatdelightintheprospect。Gradually，however，itseemstohavedawneduponhimthattheremightbeinconveniencesinbeingoverlookedbyasetofevenmodelschoolboys。Thereweredifficultiesastofunds。Ricardooffered£；200andcollectedsubscriptionsfor£；900，butPlacethoughtthathemighthavebeenmoreliberal。About1817theycounteduponsubscriptionsfor£；2310。Allenwastreasurer，Placesecretary，andthedukesofKentandYorkwereonthecommittee。
　　Romillywaspersuadedtojoin，andtheyhadhopesofthe£；1000givenbyBurdetttotheWestLondoninstitution。Butthethingcouldneverbegotintoworkingorder，inspiteofPlace’seffortsandMill’scounsels；
　　and，afterpainfulhaulingsandtuggings，itfinallycollapsedin1820。17
　　TheeffortsoftheUtilitarianstoeffectanythingdirectlyinthewayofeducationthusfellcompletelyflat。Onemoralissufficientlyobvious。Theywere，afterall，butasmallclique，regardedwithsuspicionbyalloutsiders；andsuchasystemascouldseriouslyaffecteducationcouldonlybecarriedouteitherbygovernment，whichwasthinkingofverydifferentthings，orbysocietiesalreadyconnectedwiththegreatreligiousbodies。TheonlyfunctionwhichcouldbeadequatelydischargedbythelittlebandofUtilitarianswastoactuponpublicopinion；
　　andthis，nodoubt，theycoulddotosomepurpose。Ihavegonesofarintothesemattersinordertoillustratetheirposition；but，aswillbeseen，Mill，thoughconsultedateverystagebyPlace，anddoingwhathecouldtoadvocatethecause，was，afterall，inthebackground。HewasstillwrestlingwiththeIndianHistory，whichwas，ashehoped，towinforhimanindependentposition。Theeffortwasenormous。In1814hetoldPlacethathewasworkingattheHistoryfrom5A。M。till11P。M。WhenatFordAbbeyhisregularday’sworkbeganat6A。M。Andlastedtill11
　　P。M。，duringwhichtimethreehoursweregiventoteachinghischildren，andacoupleofshortwalkssuppliedhimwithrecreation。How，withallhisenergy，hemanagedtopayhiswayisamystery，whichhisbiographerisunablefullytosolve。18
　　TheHistoryatlastappearedin3vols。4to，attheendof1817。Dryandsternasitsauthor，andembodyingsomeofhispoliticalprejudices，itwasatleastasolidpieceofwork，whichsucceededatonce，andsoonbecamethestandardbookuponthesubject。MillarguesintheprefacewithcharacteristiccouragethathiswantofpersonalknowledgeofIndiawasratheranadvantage。Itmadehimimpartial。Alatereditor19hasshownthatitledtosomeseriousmisconceptions。ItischaracteristicoftheUtilitarianattitudetoassumethatasufficientknowledgeoffactcanalwaysbeobtainedfrombluebooksandstatistics。Somefactsrequireimaginationandsympathytobeappreciated，andthereMillwasdeficient。HecouldnotgiveanadequatepictureofHindoobeliefsandcustoms，thoughhefullyappreciatedtheimportanceofsuchquestions。Whateveritsshortcomings，thebookproducedaremarkablechangeinMill’sposition。HeappliedforavacantofficeintheIndiaHouse。Hisfriends，JosephHumeandRicardo，madeinterestforhiminthecity。Placeco-operatedenergetically。20Canning，thenpresidentoftheBoardofControl，issaidtohavesupportedhim；
　　andthegeneralimpressionofhisabilityappearstohavecausedhiselection，inspiteofsomeToryopposition。HebecameAssistanttotheExaminerofIndiaCorrespondence，withasalaryof£；800on12thMay1819。On10thApril1821hebecameSecondAssistant，with£；1000ayear；on9thApril1823hewasmadeAssistantExaminer，with£；1200ayear；andon1stDecember1830Examiner，with£；1900，whichon17thFebruary1836wasraisedto£；2000。TheofficialworkcameinlateryearstoabsorbthegreatestpartofMill’senergy，andhispositionexcludedhimfromanyactiveparticipationinpolitics，hadheeverbeeninclinedforit。Mill，however，setfreefrombondage，wasabletoexerthimselfveryeffectuallywithhispen；andhiswritingsbecameinagreatdegreethetext-booksofhissect。
　　During1818hehadagainco-operatedwithPlaceinapoliticalmatter。Thedissolutionofparliamentin1818producedanothercontestatWestminster。PlaceandMillwereleadersintheRadicalcommittee，whichcalledapublicmeeting，whereBurdettandKinnairdwerechosenascandidates。TheywereopposedtoRomilly，theoldfriendofBenthamandofMillhimself。BothMillandBenthamregardedhimasnotsufficientlyorthodox。Romilly，however，wasthroughoutattheheadofthepoll，andtheRadicalcommitteewereobligedtowithdrawtheirsecondcandidate，Kinnaird，inordertosecuretheelectionofBurdettagainstthegovernmentcandidateMaxwell。RomillysoonafterwardsdinedatBentham’shouse，andmetMill，withDumont，Brougham，andRush，onfriendlyterms。OnRomilly’ssaddeathon2ndNovemberfollowing，MillwenttoWorthingtoofferhissympathytothefamily，anddeclaredthatthe’gloom’had’affectedhishealth。’Hetooknopartintheconsequentelection，inwhichHobhousestoodunsuccessfullyastheRadicalcandidate。
　　III。LEADEROFTHEUTILITARIANS
　　Politicswerebeginningtoenteruponanewphase。Theperiodwasmarkedbythe’SixActs’andthe’Peterloomassacre。’TheRadicalleaderswhoupheldthecauseinthosedarkdayswerenotaltogethertothetasteoftheUtilitarians。AfterBurdett，JohnCartwright1740-1824andHenryor’Orator’Hunt1773-1835，heroofthe’Peterloomassacre，’werethemostconspicuous。TheyweresupportedbyCobbett，thegreatestjournalistofthetime，andvariousmoreobscurewriters。TheUtilitariansheldtheminconsiderablecontempt。Burdettwasflashy，melodramatic，andvain；Huntan’unprincipleddemagogue；’andCartwright，theNestorofreform，whohadbegunhislaboursin1780，was，accordingtoPlace，wearisome，impracticable，andamerenuisanceinmattersofbusiness。
　　TheUtilitarianstriedtousesuchmen，butsharedtheToryopinionoftheirvalue。Theyhadsomerelationswithotherobscurewriterswhoweremartyrstothelibertyofthepress。PlacehelpedWilliamHoneintheReformer’sRegister，whichwasbroughtoutin1817。ThefamoustrialinwhichHonetriumphedoverEllenboroughoccurredattheendofthatyear。RichardCarlile1790-1843，whoreprintedHone’spamphlets，andin1818publishedPaine’sworks，wassentencedin1819tothreeyears’imprisonment；andwhileinconfinementbegantheRepublican，whichappearedfrom1819to1826。Ultimatelyhepassednineyearsinjail，andshowedunflinchingcourageinmaintainingthelibertyofspeech。TheUtilitarians，asProfessorBainbelieves，helpedhimduringhisimprisonments，andJohnMill’sfirstpublicationwasaprotestagainsthisprosecution。21A’republican，anatheist，andMalthusian，’hewasspeciallyhatedbytherespectable，andhadinallthesecapacitiesclaimsuponthesympathyoftheUtilitarians。OneofCarlile’sfirstemploymentswastocirculatetheBlackDwarf，editedbyThomasJonathanWoolerfrom1817to1824。22ThispaperrepresentedCartwright，butitalsopublishedBentham’sreformCatechism，besidesdirectcontributionsandvariousselectionsfromhisworks。
　　TheUtilitarianswereopposedonprincipletoCobbett，areformerofatypeverydifferentfromtheirown；andstillmorevitallyopposedtoOwen，whowasbeginningtodevelophisSocialistschemes。IftheyhadsympathyforRadicalismoftheWoolerorCarlilevariety，theybelongedtoodistinctlytotheranksofrespectability，andweretoodeeplyimpressedwiththenecessityofreticence，toallowtheirsympathiestoappearopenly。As，ontheotherhand，theyweretooRadicalintheirgenuinecreedtobeacceptedbyEdinburghReviewersandfrequentersofHollandHouse，therewasawidegapbetweenthemandthegenuineWhig。TheirtaskthereforewastogiveapoliticaltheorywhichshouldbeRadicalinprinciple，andyetinsuchaformasshouldappealtothereasonofthemorecultivatedreaderswithouttooopenlyshockingtheirprejudices。
　　JamesMillachievedthistaskbythepublicationofaseriesofarticlesintheSupplementtotheEncyclopaediaBritannica，whichappearedfrom1816to1823，ofwhichIshallpresentlyspeakatlength。Itpassedfortheorthodoxprofessionoffaithamongthelittlecircleoffriendswhohadnowgatheredroundhim。FirstamongthemwasDavidRicardo。HehadbecomeknowntoMillin1811。’’I’saidBentham，’wasthespiritualfatherofMill，andMillthespiritualfatherofRicardo。’23MillwasreallythediscipleofRicardoineconomics；butitwasMillwhoinducedhimtopublishhischiefwork，andMill’sowntreatiseuponthesubjectpublishedin1820
　　issubstantiallyanexpositionofRicardo’sdoctrine。Mill，too，encouragedRicardototakeaseatinparliamentin1818，andtherefortheshortremainderofhislife，RicardodefendedthecharacteristicUtilitarianprincipleswiththeauthorityderivedfromhisreputationasaneconomist。24Thetwowerenowespeciallyintimate。DuringMill’sfirstyearsintheIndiaHouse，hisonlyrecreationwasanannualvisittoRicardoatGatcombe。
　　MeetingsatRicardo’shouseinLondonledtothefoundationofthe’PoliticalEconomyClub’in1821。Milldraftedtherulesoftheclub，emphasisingthedutyofmemberstopropagatesoundeconomicopinionsthroughthepress。
　　TheclubtookrootandhelpedtomakeMillknowntopoliticiansandmenofcommercialinfluence。OneofthememberswasMalthus，whoissaid，andtheassertioniscredibleenough，tohavebeengenerallyworstedbyMillinthediscussionsattheclub。Millwasanawkwardantagonist，andMalthuscertainlynotconspicuousforclosenessoflogic。ThecircleofMill’sfriendsnaturallyextendedashispositionintheIndiaHouseenabledhimtolivemoreathiseaseandbroughthimintocontactwithmenofpoliticalposition。Hisoldschool-fellowJosephHumehadmadeafortuneinIndia，andreturnedtotakeaseatinparliamentandbecomethepersistentandtiresomeadvocateofmanyoftheUtilitariandoctrines。Ayoungergenerationwasgrowingup，enthusiasticinthecauseofreform，andgladtositatthefeetofmenwhoclaimedatleasttobephilosophicalleaders。JohnBlack1783-1855，anothersturdyScot，whocamefromDunsinBerwickshire，had，in1817，succeededPerryaseditoroftheMorningChronicle。
　　TheChroniclewasanoppositionpaper，anddaybydayBlackwalkedwithMillfromtheIndiaHouse，discussingthetopicsofthetimeanddischarginghimselfthroughtheChronicle。TheChronicledeclinedafter1821，owingtoachangeintheproprietorship。25AlbanyFonblanque1793-1872tooktojournalismatanearlyage，succeededLeighHuntasleader-writerfortheExaminerin1826，becameanotherexponentofUtilitarianprinciples，andforsometimeinalliancewithJohnStuartMillwasamongthemosteffectiverepresentativesofthenewschoolinthepress。JohnRamsayM’Culloch1789-1864upheldtheeconomicbattleintheScotsmanatEdinburghfrom1817-1827，andediteditfrom1818-1820。HeafterwardsdevotedhimselftolecturinginLondon，andwasformanyyearsthemostardentapostleofthe’dismalscience。’Hewasagenial，whisky-lovingScot；thefavouriteobjectofeverybody’smimicry；andwasespeciallyintimatewithJamesMill。Manyotherbrilliantyoungmencontributedtheirhelpinvariousways。HenryBickersteth1783-1851，afterwardsLordLangdaleandMasteroftheRolls，hadbroughtBenthamandBurdettintopoliticalalliance；andhisrisingreputationatthebarledtohisbeingplacedin1824uponacommissionforreformingtheprocedureoftheCourtofChancery，oneofthemostcherishedobjectsoftheUtilitariancreed。Besidesthesetherewerethegroupofyoungmen，whoweresoontobeknownasthe’philosophicalRadicals。’JohnStuartMill，uponwhomthemantleofhisfatherwastodescend，wasconspicuousbyhisextraordinaryprecocity，andhavingbeencarefullyeducatedintheorthodoxfaith，wasemployedin1825uponeditingBentham’sgreatworkuponevidence。GeorgeGrote1794-1871，thefuturehistorian，hadbeenintroducedtoMillbyRicardo；andwasin1821defendingMill’stheoryofgovernmentagainstMackintosh，andin1822publishedtheAnalysisofRevealedReligion，foundeduponBentham’smanuscriptsandexpressingmostunequivocallytheUtilitariantheoryofreligion。WiththemwereassociatedthetwoAustins，John1790-1859who，in1821，livedclosetoBenthamandMillinQueen’sSquare，andwhowasregardedasthecomingteacheroftheUtilitariansystemofjurisprudence；andCharles1799-1874，whoupheldthetruefaithamongtheyounggentlemenatCambridgewithavigourandabilitywhichatleastrivalledthepowersofhiscontemporary，Macaulay。
　　Meanwhile，Millhimselfwasdisqualifiedbyhisofficefromtakinganydirectpartinpoliticalagitations。PlacecontinuedanactiveconnectionwiththevariousRadicalcommitteesandassociations；buttheyoungerdiscipleshadcomparativelylittleconcerninsuchmatters，theyweremoreinterestedindiscussingtheapplicationsofUtilitarianisminvariousdirections，or，sofarastheyhadparliamentaryaspirations，wereaspiringtofoundaseparatebodyof’philosophicalRadicals，’whichlookeddownuponPlaceandhisalliesfromtheheightsofsuperiorenlightenment。