Brownthusillustratesthegravitationofthe’common-sense’philosophytopureempiricism。HewasthelastinthegenuinelineofScottishcommon-sensephilosophers。WhenafterwhatmaybecalledtheunphilosophicalinterregnumwhichfollowedBrown’sdeath，Hamiltonbecameprofessor，theScottishtraditionwasblendedwiththeverydifferenttheoriesderivedfromKant。UponBrown’sversion，theScottishphilosophyhadvirtuallydeclareditselfbankrupt。Thesubstanceofhisteachingwasthatoftheveryschoolwhichhispredecessorshadattemptedtoconfute，carefullyasthefactmightbehiddenbydexterousrhetoricandmanipulationoftechnicalterms。HeagreeswithHume’spremises，andadoptsthemethodofCondillac，thiswasperceivedbyhismostremarkablehearer。CarlylewenttoEdinburghattheendof1809。Brown，’aneloquent，acutelittlegentleman，fullofenthusiasmaboutsimplesuggestions，relative，etc。，was’utterlyunprofitable’tohim，disspiriting，astheautumnwindsamongwitheredleaves。’41InSignsoftheTimes1829
　　CarlylegavehisviewoftheScottishphilosophygenerally。Theyhad，hesays，startedfromthe’mechanical’premisessuggestedbyHume。’theyletlooseinstinctasanindiscriminatorybandogtoguardthemagainsthis
　　conclusions’；’theytuggedlustilyatthelogicalchainbywhichHumewassocoldlytowingthemandtheworldintobottomlessabyssesofAtheismandFatalism，Butthechainsomehowsnappedbetweenthem，andtheissuehasbeenthatnobodynowcaresabouteither——anymorethanaboutHartley’s，Darwin’s，orPriestley’scontemporaneousdoingsinEngland。’42Thejudgmentgoestotherootofthematter。ThemethodofReidinevitablyledtothisresult。Considerthephilosophyasbasedupon，ifnotidenticalwith，aninductivescienceofpsychology，andtheendisclear。Youmaystudyandanalysethephenomenaascarefullyasyouplease；andmay，astheScottishprofessorsdid，produce，ifnotascientificpsychology，yetamassofacuteprolegomenatoascience。Buttheanalysiscanonlyrevealtheactualcombinations，chemicalormechanical，ofthought，theultimateprincipleswhichtheteachersprofesstodiscoveraresimplyprovisional；
　　productsnotyetanalysed，butnotthereforeincapableofanalysis。Itwasverydesirabletopointthemout：aninsistenceupontheinsufficiencyofHume’sorCondillac’stheorieswasamostvaluableservice；butitwasvaluablepreciselybecauseeveryindicationofsuchanunresolvedelementwasachallengetothenextcomertoresolveitbycloseranalysis。Andthus，infact，theintuitions，whichhadplayedsogreatapartwithReid，comeinBrown’shandstobesoclearlylimitedtothematerialsgivenbysensationorexperiencethatanyshowof’philosophy，’meaninganindependenttheoryoftheuniverse，wasanillusorycombinationoffinephrases。43
　　II。JAMESMILL’S’ANALYSIS’
　　JamesMill’sAnalysisofthePhenomenaoftheHumanMindisontheonehandanexpositionoftheprinciplesimpliedinBentham’swritings，and，ontheotherhand，astatementofthepositionfromwhichtheyoungerMillstarted。J。S。
　　Milldiscussedthebookwithhisfatherduringitscomposition，andin1869hepublishedanewedition，withelaboratenotesbyhimself，GeorgeGrote，ProfessorBain，andAndrewFindlater，44thecommentaryisofgreatimportanceindefiningtherelationbetweenthetwosuccessorstothethroneofBentham。
　　Mill’sAnalysis，thoughnotwidelyread，madeadeepimpressionuponMill’sowndisciples。Itisterse，trenchant，anduncompromising。ItremindsusinpointofstyleoftheFrenchwriters，withwhomhesympathised，ratherthanoftheEnglishpredecessors，towhommuchofthesubstancewasowing。ThediscursiverhetoricofBrownorStewartisreplacedbygood，hard，sinewylogic。Thewriterisplainlyinearnest。Ifoverconfident，hehasnopettyvanity，andatleastbelieveseverywordthathesays。Certainlimitationsareatonceobvious。Mill，asapublicist，ahistorian，andabusyofficial，hadnothadmuchtimetospareforpurelyphilosophicreading。Hewasnotaprofessorinwantofasystem，butanenergeticmanofbusiness，wishingtostrikeattherootofthesuperstitionstowhichhispoliticalopponentsappealedforsupport。HehadheardofKant，andseenwhat’thepoormanwouldbeat。’
　　LaterGermansystems，hadheheardofthem，wouldhavebeensummarilyrejectedbyhimassomuchtranscendentalmoonshine。Theproblemofphilosophywas，heheld，averysimpleone，ifattackedinastraightforward，scientificmethod。
　　Mill，likehisScottishrivals，applies’Baconian’principles。Theinductivemethod，whichhadalreadybeensofruitfulinthephysicalsciences，willbeequallyeffectiveinphilosophy，andeversinceLocke，philosophyhadmeantpsychology，the’philosophyofthemind’andthephilosophyofthebodymaybetreatedasco-ordinateandinvestigatedbysimilarmethods，inthephysicalscienceswecomeultimatelytothelawsofmovementoftheirconstituentatoms。
　　Inthemoralscienceswecomeinthesamewaytothestudyof’ideas，’
　　thequestions，Howdoideasoriginate?andhowaretheycombinedsoastoformtheactualstateofconsciousness?arethereforethegeneralproblemstobesolved。Humehaddefinitelyproposedtheproblem。HartleyhadworkedoutthetheoryofassociationofideaswhichHumehadalreadycompared45totheuniversalprincipleofgravitationinthephysicalworld；andhadendeavouredtoshowhowthismightbeconnectedwithphysiologicalprinciples。
　　Hartley’sfollowershadbeencontenttodwelluponthepowerofassociation。
　　AbrahamTucker，Priestley，ErasmusDarwin，andBelshamrepresentedthistendency，andwerethenormalantagonistsofReidandStewart。InFrancethe’ideologists’mainlyfollowedCondillac，andapparentlyknewnothingofHartley。Mill，ashissontestifies，hadbeenprofoundlyinfluencedbyHartley’streatise——the’reallymaster-production，’asheesteemedit，’inthephilosophyofmind。’46Hartley’swork，astheyoungerMillthought，andtheelderapparentlyagreed，wasverysuperiortothe’merelyverbalgeneralisationofCondillac。’JamesMill，however，admiredCondillacandhissuccessors。Inhisarticleuponeducation，MilltracestheassociationtheorytoHobbes，Locke，andHume，thelastofwhom，hesays，wassucceededbythetwo’moresober-minded’philosophers，CondillacandHartley；whileheespeciallypraisesErasmusDarwin，Helvé；tius，andCabanis。Mill，therefore，mayberegardedasanindependentallyoftheideologistswhoseinfluenceuponBrownhasbeenalreadynoticed。MillhadnotreadBrown’sLectureswhenhebeganhisAnalysis，andafterreadingthemthoughtBrown’butpoorlyreadinthedoctrineofassociation。’47Hehad，however，readtheessayuponcausation，whichheratheroddlydescribesas’oneofthemostvaluablecontributionstoscienceforwhichweareindebtedtothelastgeneration。’48HeacceptedBrown’sviewminusthe’intuition。’
　　ThepithofMill’sbookisthusdetermined。Hisaimistogiveacompleteanalysisofmentalphenomena，andthereforetoresolvethosephenomenaintotheirprimitiveconstituentatoms。Herewehaveatonceatacitassumptionwhichgovernshismethod。
　　Philosophy，speakingroughly，isbysomepeoplesupposedtostartfromtruths，andthustobeinsomewayanevolutionoflogic。AccordingtoMillitmuststartfromfacts，andthereforefromsomethingnotgivenbylogic。Tostateclearly，indeed，therelationbetweentruthandfactmaysuggestveryintricateproblems。Mill，atanyrate，mustfindabasisinfact，andforhimtheultimatefactsmustbefeelings。Therealityatleastofafeelingisundeniable。ThePenserc’estsentir。orthedoctrinethatall’ideas’aretransformedsensationsishisstarting-point。Theword’feeling，’accordingtohim，includesevery’phenomenonofthemind。’’think，’
　　hesayselsewhere，49doesnotincludeallourexperience，but’thereisnothingtowhichwecouldnotextendtheterm”Ifeel。”’Heproceedstoinferthatourexperienceiseitheraknowledgeofthefeelingsseparately，or’aknowledgeoftheorderinwhichtheyfolloweachother；andthisisall。’Wemayaddthattheknowledgeisthefeeling，Reid，Kant，andtheGermanshaveindeedtriedtoshowthattherearefeelingsnotderivedfromthesensations，butthis，asHartleyandCondillachaveshown，isamistake。Thisishisfirstprincipleinanutshell，andmustgiveacluetothevariousapplications。
　　Thenextstepisfamiliar。
　　Humehaddistinguishedimpressionsandideas。’Ideas’arecopiesofprevious’impressions。’Itisforpsychologytosaywhatarethelawsbywhichtheyarerelatedtotheiroriginals。Theultimateorigincannotbeexplainedbypsychologyalone。Impressionsarecausedbytheoutwardworldactinginsomewayuponthemindandthepsychologistcanonlyclassifythevariousmodesinwhichtheypresentthemselves。Millthereforebeginsbytheusualaccountofthefivesenses，throughwhichcomesallknowledgeoftheexternalworld。HeaddstoReid’slistmuscularsensations，andthosederivedfromtheinternalorgans，towhichlastCabanisinparticularhadcalledattention。
　　Sofarheisfollowingthestepsofhispredecessors。Heis，hesays，simplyassertingan’indisputable’fact。50Wehavesensationsandwehaveideas，whichare’copiesofsensations。’Wemaythenconsiderhowfarthesefactswillenableustoexplainthewholeseriesofmentalphenomena。
　　’Ideation，’whichhesuggestsasanewword——theprocessbywhichacontinuousseriesofthoughtsgoesoninourminds——isthegeneralphenomenontobeconsidered。Without，asyet，pronouncingthatsensationsandcopiesofsensationswillturnouttoformthewholecontentsofourconsciousness，hetriestoshowforwhatpartofthosecontentstheywillaccount。
　　Herewecometothedoctrinewhichforhimandhisschoolgavethekeytoallpsychologicalproblems。
　　ItwasJamesMill’srealmerit，accordingtohisson，thathecarriedtheprincipleofassociationofideasfurtherthanithadbeencarriedbyHartleyorotherpredecessors。51Theimportanceofthedoctrine，indeed，isimpliedintheverystatementoftheproblem。Ifitbetrue，orsofarasitistrue，thatourconsciousnessrevealstoussimplyaseriesof’sensations’and’ideas，’thequestionmustbehowtheyarecombined。’thoughtsucceedsthought，ideafollowsideaincessantly，’52saysMill；
　　andthisphraseassumes’thoughtsandideas’tobeseparableatoms。How，then，dotheycometocoalesceintoanapparentlycontinuousstream?Themindisastreamof’ideas。’Ifthestreamiscomposedofdrops，wemust，ofcourse，considerthedropsascomposingthestream。Thequestionis，Whatlawscanweassignwhichwilldeterminetheprocessofcomposition?
　　thephrase’association’admittedlyexpressessomegeneralandveryfamiliartruths。Innumerableconnectionsmaybeestablishedwhenthereisnoassignablegroundofconnectionintheideasthemselvesotherthanthefactofapreviouscontact。Oneideanotonlycallsuptheother，butinsomewaygeneratesabeliefinanindependentconnection。Wehearthunder，forexample，andthinkoflightning。Thetwoideasareentirelydistinctandseparate，fortheyareduetodifferentsenses。Yetwenotonlythinkoflightningwhenwehearthunder，butwehavenodoubtthatthereisacausalconnection。
　　Webelieveinthisconnection，again，thoughnofurtherexplanationcanbegivenofthefact。Thunderandlightninghaveoccurredtogether，andweinferthattheywill，andevenmust，occurtogether。Whenweexamineourwholestructureofbelief，wefindsuch’arbitrary’associationspervadeitineverydirection。Languageitselfislearnedsimplybyassociation。