6。Bentham’sWorks，x，p。574。
　　7。Brougham’sSpeeches1838，ii。287-486。
　　8。AninterestingsummaryoftheprogressoflawreformsandofBentham’sshareinthemisgiveninSirR。K。Wilson’sHistoryofModernEnglishLaw1875。
　　9。Bentham’sWorks，x，571。
　　10。InCambridgePrymewasthefirstprofessorin1828，buthadonlythetitlewithoutendowment。
　　Theprofessorshipasonlysalariedin1863。
　　11。Ricardo’sWorks1888，p。407。
　　12。PrintedinPorter’sProgressoftheNationandelsewhere。
　　13。SeesixthvolumeofHistoryofPricesbyTookeandNewmarch，andprivatelyprintedMinutesofPoliticalEconomyClub1882。
　　14。Speeches，3vols。
　　8vo，1831。
　　15。Ibid。，ii，465-530。
　　16。Ibid。，ii，477。
　　17。Bentham’sWorks，ii，459。WemayrememberhowJ。S。Millinhisboyhoodwasabashedbecausehecouldnotexplaintohisfathertheforceofthedistinction。
　　18。Speeches，ii，246，332。
　　19。Ibid。，i，102-108Currency-Pamphletof1810。
　　20。Ibid。，ii，397。
　　21。Speeches，iii，257。
　　22。Ricardoindeedmadeareservationastothenecessityofcounterbalancingbyamoderatedutythespecialburthensuponagriculture。
　　23。IntheHistoryofTrades-UnionismbySidneyandBeatriceWebb1894，pp。88-98。ThehistoryofPlace’sagitationisfullygiveninMrGrahamWallas’sLife，chap。viii。
　　24。Wallas’sFrancisPlace，p。217。
　　25。Firstpublishedin1807-8。
　　26。Letteriii。
　　27。Ibid。，vi。
　　28。SydneySmithputveryingeniouslytheadvantagesofwhathecalledthe’lottery’system：ofgiving，thatis，afewgreatprizes，insteadofequalisingtheincomesoftheclergy。
　　Thingslooksodifferentfromoppositepointsofviews。
　　29。ChurchofEnglandism，ii，199。
　　30。SeeespeciallyhisreviewofSouthey’sBookoftheChurch。
　　31。Romilly’sMemoirs，iii，33。
　　32。57GeorgeIII，caps。
　　60-67。
　　33。Editionof1828，p。24。
　　34。Ibid。，p。10。
　　35。AMrGrayproposedatacountymeetingin1816thatthecryof’retrenchmentandreform’shouldberaisedineverycorneroftheislandHenryJephson’Platform，p。378。Idonotknowwhetherthiswasthefirstappearanceoftheformula。
　　36。HumehadbeenintroducedtoPlacebyJamesMill，whothoughthimworth’nursing’。Placefoundhimatfirst’dullandselfish’，but’nursedhim’sowellby1836hehadbecomethe’manofmen。’——Wallas’sFrancisPlace，p。181，182。
　　37。Torren’sLifeofGraham，i，250-72，wherehisgreatspeechof14thMay1830isgiven。
　　38。2and3WilliamIV，cap。
　　111passed15August1832。
　　39。4and5WilliamIV，cap。
　　15。
　　40。ThePlatform，itsOriginandProgress，byHenryJephson1892，givesaveryinterestinghistoricalaccountoftheprocess。
　　41。57GeorgeIII，cap。19
　　and60GeorgeIII，cap。6。
　　42。SeeJephson’sPlatform，pp。167-70。
　　43。SeeJephson’sPlatform，i，348，455，517。
　　44。SeeIbid。，ii，129-40
　　forsomeinterestingpassagesastothis。
　　45。OfficialCorrespondence1887，308。
　　46。Greville’sGeorgeIV，andWilliamIV，iii，155，167-69，171。
　　47。Bentham’sWorks，x，571。
　　48。Romilly’sMemoirs，ii，67，222。
　　Chapter3：PoliticalTheoryI。MillonGovernmentInowturntothegeneralpoliticaltheoryofwhichMillwastheauthoritativeexponent，theEncyclopaediaarticleupon’Government’1820givesthepithoftheirdoctrine，itwas，asProfessorBain1thinks，an’impellingandaguidingforce’
　　inthemovementwhichculminatedintheReformBill，theyoungerUtilitariansregardedit，saysJ。S。Mill，as’amasterpieceofpoliticalwisdom’；2whileMacaulay3tauntsthemforholdingittobe’perfectandunanswerable。’ThisfamousarticleisaterseandenergeticsummaryofthedoctrineimpliedinBentham’sWorks，butthereobscuredunderelaborationofminutedetails。Itisrathersingular，indeed，thatsovigorousamanifestoofUtilitariandogmashouldhavebeenacceptedbyMacveyNapier——asoundWhig——forapublicationwhichprofessedscientificimpartiality。Ithas，however，inthehighestdegree，themeritsofclearnessandcondensationdesirableinapopularexposition。Thereticenceappropriatetotheplaceexcusestheomissionofcertainimplicitconclusions。Millhastogiveacompletetheoryofpoliticsinthirty-two8vopages。Hehasscantyroomforqualifyingstatementorhistoricalillustration，Hespeaksasfromthechairofaprofessorlayingdowntheelementaryprinciplesofademonstratedscience。4
　　Millstartsfromthesacredprinciple，theendofgovernment，astheendofallconduct，mustbetheincreaseofhumanhappiness，theprovinceofgovernmentislimitedbyanotherconsideration。Ithastodealwithoneclassofhappiness，thatis，withthepainsandpleasures’whichmenderivefromoneanother，’Bya’lawofnature’labourisrequisiteforprocuringthemeansofhappiness，Now，if’nature’producedallthatanymandesired，therewouldbenoneedofgovernment，fortherewouldbenoconflictofinterest，But，asthematerialproducedisfinite，andcanbeappropriatedbyindividuals，itbecomesnecessarytoinsuretoeverymanhispropershare，What，then，isaman’spropershare?Thatwhichhehimselfproduces；for，ifyougivetoonemanmorethantheproduceofhislabour，youmusttakeawaytheproduceofanotherman’slabour。Thegreatesthappiness，therefore，isproducedby’assuringtoeverymanthegreatestpossiblequantityoftheproduceofhisownlabour。’Howcanthisbedone?Willnotthestrongesttaketheshareoftheweakest?Hecanbepreventedinoneandapparentlyonlyinoneway。Menmustuniteanddelegatetoafewthepowernecessaryforprotectingall。’Thisisgovernment。’5
　　Theproblemisnowsimple。
　　Governmentisessentiallyanassociationofmenfortheprotectionofproperty。
　　Itisadelegationofthepowersnecessaryforthatpurposetotheguardians，and’allthedifficultquestionsofgovernmentrelatetothemeans’ofpreventingtheguardiansfromthemselvesbecomingplunderers。
　　Howisthistobeaccomplished?
　　Thepowerofprotection，saysMill。followingtheoldtheory，maybeintrustedtothewholecommunity，toafew，ortoone；thatis，wemayhaveademocracy，anaristocracy，oramonarchy。Ademocracy，ordirectgovernmentofallbyall，isfortheordinaryreasonspronouncedimpracticable。Buttheobjectionstotheothersystemsareconclusive。Theneedofgovernment，hehasshown，dependsupon’thelawofhumannature’6that’aman，ifable，willtakefromothersanythingwhichtheyhaveandhedesires。’Theveryprinciplewhichmakesgovernmentnecessary，therefore，willpromptagovernmenttodefeatitsownproperend。Mill’sdoctrineissofaridenticalwiththedoctrineofHobbes；menarenaturallyinastateofwar，andgovernmentimpliesatacitcontractbywhichmenconferuponasovereignthepowernecessaryforkeepingthepeace。Buthere，thoughadmittingtheforceofHobbes’sargument，hedivergesfromitsconclusion。Ifademocracybeimpossible，andanaristocracyormonarchynecessarilyoppressive，itmightseem，headmits，asitactuallyseemedtoHobbesandtotheFrencheconomists，thatthefewertheoppressorsthebetter，andthatthereforeanabsolutemonarchyisthebest。Experience，hethinks，is’onthesurface’ambiguous。EasterndespotsandRomanemperorshavebeentheworstscourgestomankind；yettheDanespreferredadespottoanaristocracy，andareas’wellgovernedasanypeopleinEurope。’InGreece，democracy，inspiteofitsdefects，producedthemostbrilliantresults。7Hence，heargues，wemustgo’beyondthesurface，’and’penetratetothespringswithin。’Theresultofthesearchisdiscouraging。Thehopeofgluttingtherulersisillusory。
　　Thereisno’pointofsaturation’8withtheobjectsofdesire，eitherforkingoraristocracy。Itisa’grandgoverninglawofhumannature’
　　thatwedesiresuchpoweraswillmake’thepersonsandpropertiesofhumanbeingssubservienttoourpleasures。’9Thisdesireisindefinitelygreat。Tothenumberofmenwhomwewouldforceintosubservience，andthedegreeinwhichwewouldmakethemsubservient，wecanassignnolimits。
　　Moreover，aspainisamorepowerfulinstrumentforsecuringobediencethanpleasure，amanwilldesiretopossess’unlimitedpowerofinflictingpainuponothers。’Willhealsodesire，itmaybeasked，tomakeuseofit?The’chainofinference，’hereplies，inthiscaseiscloseandstrong’toamostunusualdegree。’Amandesirestheactionsofotherstobeincorrespondencewithhisownwishes。’Terror’，willbethe’grandinstrument。’10Itthusfollowsthattheveryprincipleuponwhichgovernmentisfoundedleads，intheabsenceofchecks，’notonlytothatdegreeofplunderwhichleavesthemembersofacommunity……Thebaremeansofsubsistence，buttothatdegreeofcrueltywhichisnecessarytokeepinexistencethemostintenseterror。’AnEnglishgentleman，hesays，isafavourablespecimenofcivilisation，andyetWestIndianslaveryshowsofwhatcrueltyhecouldbeguiltywhenunchecked。Ifequalcrueltyhasnotbeenexhibitedelsewhere，itis，heseemstothink，becausemenwerenot’thesameassheepinrespecttotheirshepherd，’11andmaythereforeresistifdriventoofar。Thedifficultyuponthisshowingistounderstandhowanygovernment，exceptthemostbrutaltyranny，everhasbeen，orevercanbe，possible。
　　Whatisthecombiningprinciplewhichcanweldtogethersuchamassofhostileandmutuallyrepellentatoms?Howtheycanevenformthenecessarycompactisdifficulttounderstand，andtheviewseemstoclashwithhisownavowedpurpose。ItisMill’saim，asitwasBentham’s，tosecurethegreatesthappinessofthegreatestnumber；andyetheseemstosetoutbyprovingasa’lawofhumannature’thatnobodycandesirethehappinessofanyoneexcepthimself。HequotesfromMontesquieuthesaying，whichshowsan’acutesenseofthisimportanttruth，’’thateveryonewhohaspowerisledtoabuseit。’12Ratheritwouldseem，accordingtoMill，allpowerimpliesabuseinitsveryessence。Theproblemseemstobehowtomakeuniversalcohesionoutofuniversalrepulsion。
　　Millhashisremedyforthisdeeplyseatedevil。Heattacks，asBenthamhadalreadydone，theold-fashionedtheory，accordingtowhichtheBritishConstitutionwasanadmirablemixtureofthethree’simpleforms。’Twoofthepowers，heargues，willalwaysagreeto’swallowupthethird。’13’Themonarchyandaristocracyhaveallpossiblemotivesforendeavouringtoobtainunlimitedpoweroverthepersonsandpropertyofthecommunity，’thoughthedemocracy，ashealsosays，haseverypossiblemotiveforpreventingthem。AndinEngland，ashenodoubtmeanthisreaderstounderstand，themonarchyandaristocracyhadtoagreatextentsucceeded。Where，then，arewetolook?Tothe’granddiscoveryofmoderntimes，’namely，therepresentativesystem。Ifthisdoesnotsolvealldifficultiesweshallbeforcedtotheconclusionthatgoodgovernmentisimpossible。Fortunately，however，therepresentativesystemmaybemadeperfectlyeffective。Thisfollowseasily。Itwould，ashehassaid，14bea’contradictioninterms’tosupposethatthecommunityatlargecan’haveaninterestoppositetoitsinterest。’