Whenthewarwasover，eventhegovernmentbegantofeelthatsomethingmustbedone，in1817someactswerepassed32abolishingavarietyofsinecureofficesand’regulatingcertainofficesintheCourtofExchequer。’
　　TheRadicalsconsideredthisasameredelusion，becauseitwasprovidedatthesametimethatpensionsmightbegiventopersonswhohadheldcertaingreatoffices，thechange，however，wasapparentlyofimportanceasremovingthechiefapologyforsinecures，andthesystemwithmodificationsstillremains。ThemarquisofCamden，oneofthetellersoftheExchequer，voluntarilyresignedthefeesandacceptedonlytheregularsalaryof£；2500。
　　HisactioniscommendedintheBlackBook，33whichexpressesaregretthattheexamplehadnotbeenfollowedbyothergreatsinecurists。
　　Publicopinionwasbeginningtobefelt。Duringthesubsequentperiodthecryagainstsinecuresbecamemoreemphatic，theBlackBook，publishedoriginallyin1820and1823，andafterwardsreissued，gavealist，sofarasitcouldbeascertained，ofallpensions，andsuppliedamassofinformationforRadicalorators。Theamountofpensionsisstatedatover£；1，000，000，includingsinecureofficeswithover£；350，000annually；34andthelistofofficesprobablyveryinaccurateindetailgivesasingularimpressionofthestrangeramificationsofthesystem。Besidesthedirectpensions，everynewdepartmentofadministrationseemstohavesuggestedthefoundationofofficeswhichtendedtobecomesinecures。Thecryfor’retrenchment’wasjoinedtothecryforreform。35JosephHume，whofirstenteredparliamentin1818，becamearepresentativeoftheUtilitarianRadicalism，andbeganalongcareerofminutecriticismwhichwonforhimthereputationofastupendousbore，buthelpedtokeepasteadypressureuponministers。36SirJamesGraham1792-1861wasatthistimeofRadicaltendencies，andfirstmadehimselfconspicuousbydemandingreturnsofpensions。37ThesettlementsofthecivillistsofGeorgeIV，WilliamIV，andVictoria，gaveopportunitiesforimposingnewrestrictionsuponthepensionsystem。Althoughnosinglesweepingmeasurewaspassed，thewholepositionwaschanged。BythetimeoftheReformBill，asinecurehadbecomeananachronism。Thepresumptionwasthatwheneveranopportunityoffered，itwouldbesuppressed。SomeofthesinecureofficesintheCourtofChancery，the’KeeperoftheHanaper，’the’Chaffwax，’
　　andsoforth，wereabolishedbyanactpassedbytheparliamentwhichhadjustcarriedtheReformBill，38in1833areformofthesystemofnavaladministrationbySirJamesGrahamgotridofsomecumbrousmachinery；
　　andGrahamagainwasintrustedin1834withanactunderwhichtheCourtofExchequerwasfinallyreformed，andthe’ClerkofthePells’andthe’tellersoftheExchequer’ceasedtoexist。39Otherofficesseemtohavemeltedawaybydegrees，wheneverachanceoffered。
　　Manyotheroftheoldabuseshadceasedtorequireanyspecialdenunciationsfrompoliticaltheorists。
　　Thegeneralprinciplewasestablished，andwhatremainedwastoapplyitindetail。TheprisonsystemwasnolongerinwantofaHowardoraBentham。
　　AbusesremainedwhichoccupiedtheadmirableMrs。Fry；andmanyseriousdifficultieshadtobesolvedbyalongcourseofexperiment。Butitwasnolongeraquestionwhetheranythingshouldbedoing，butofthemostefficientmeansofbringingaboutanadmittedlydesirableend。Theagitationforthesuppressionoftheslave-tradeagainhadbeensucceededbytheattackuponslavery。Thesystemwasevidentlydoomed，althoughnotfinallyabolishedtillaftertheReformBill；andministerswereonlyconsideringthequestionwhethertheabolitionshouldbesummaryorgradual，orwhatcompensationmightbemadetovestedinterests。Theoldagitationhadbeenremarkable，asIhavesaid，notonlyforitsendbutforthenewkindofmachinerytowhichithadapplied。Popularagitation40hadtakenanewshape。ThecountyassociationsformedinthelastdaysoftheAmericanwarofindependence，andthesocietiesduetotheFrenchrevolutionhadsetaprecedent。Therevolutionarysocietieshadbeensuppressedorhaddiedout，asopposedtothegeneralspiritofthenation，althoughtheyhaddoneagooddealtoarousepoliticalspeculation。IntheperiodofdistresswhichfollowedthewartheRadicalreformershadagainheldpublicmeetings，andhadagainbeenmetbyrepressivemeasures。Theactsof1817
　　and181941imposedsevererestrictionsupontherightofpublicmeeting。Theold’countymeeting，’whichcontinuedtobecommonuntilthereformperiod，andwassummonedbythelord-lieutenantorthesheriffonarequisitionfromthefreeholders，hadakindofconstitutionalcharacter，thoughIdonotknowitshistoryindetail。42Theextravagantlyrepressivemeasureswereananachronism，orcouldonlybeenforcedduringthepressureofanintenseexcitement。Inonewayorother，publicmeetingsweresoonbeingheldasfrequentlyasever。ThetrialofQueenCarolinegaveopportunityfornumerousgatherings，andstatesmenbegantofindthattheymustuseinsteadofsuppressingthem。Canning43appearstohavebeenthefirstministertomakefrequentuseofspeechesaddressedtopublicmeetings；andmeetingstowhichsuchappealswereaddressedsoonbegantousetheirauthoritytodemandpledgesfromthespeakers。44Representationwastobeunderstoodmoreandmoreasdelegation。Meanwhiletheeffectofpublicmeetingswasenormouslyincreasedwhenageneralorganisationwasintroduced。ThegreatprecedentwastheCatholicAssociation，foundedin1823byO’ConnellandSheil。ThepeculiarcircumstancesoftheIrishpeopleandtheirpriestsgaveaready-mademachineryfortheagitationwhichtriumphedin1829。ThePoliticalUnionfoundedbyAttwoodatBirminghaminthesameyearadoptedthemethod，andledtothetriumphof1832。Politicalcombinationhenceforthtookadifferentshape，andintheordinaryphrase，’publicopinion’becamedefinitelytheultimateandsupremeauthority。
　　Thisenormouschangeandthecorrespondingdevelopmentofthepowerofthepress，whichaffectedtomouldand，atanyrate，expressedpublicopinion，entirelyfellinwithUtilitarianprinciples。Theirpartinbringingaboutthechangewasofnospecialimportanceexceptinsofarastheymoreorlessinspiredthepopularorators。Theywere，however，readytotakeadvantageofit。TheyhadtheWestminsterReviewtotakeaplacebesidetheEdinburghandQuarterlyReviews，whichhadraisedperiodicalwritingtoafarhigherpositionthanithadeveroccupied，andtowhichleadingpoliticiansandleadingauthorsonbothsideshadbecomeregularcontributors，theoldcontemptforjournalismwasrapidlyvanishing。In1825Canningexpresseshisregretforhavinggivensomeinformationtoapaperofwhichanillusehadbeenmade。Hehadpreviouslyabstainedfromallcommunicationwith’thesegentry，’andwasnowresolvedtohavedonewithhocgenusomneforgoodandall。45In1839wefindhisformercolleague，LordLyndhurst，seekinganalliancewithBarnes，theeditoroftheTimes，aseagerlyasthoughBarneshadbeentheheadofaparliamentaryparty。46
　　Thenewspapershadprobablydonemorethantheschoolstospreadhabitsofreadingthroughthecountry，Yetthestronginterestwhich，wasgrowingupineducationalmatterswascharacteristic。Brougham’sphrase，’theschoolmasterisabroad’29thJanuary1821，becameapopularproverb，andrejoicedtheworthyBentham。47IhavealreadydescribedthesharetakenbytheUtilitariansinthegreatBellandLancastercontroversy，Parliamenthadasyetdonelittle。AbillbroughtinbyWhitbreadhadbeenpassedin1807bytheHouseofCommons，enablingparishestoformschoolsontheScottishmodel，butaccordingtoRomilly，48itwaspassedinthewell-groundedconfidencethatitwouldbethrownoutbythepeers。AcommitteeuponeducationwasobtainedbyBroughamafterthepeace，whichreportedin1818，andwhichledtoacommissionuponschoolendowments。Broughamintroducedaneducationbillin1820butnothingcameofit。ThebeginningofanyparticipationbygovernmentinnationaleducationwasnottotakeplacetillaftertheReformBill。Meanwhile，however，thefoundationoftheLondonUniversityuponunsectarianprincipleswasencouragingtheUtilitarians；andtherewereothersymptomsofthegrowthofenlightenment。GeorgeBirkbeck1776-1841
　　hadstartedsomepopularlecturesuponscienceatGlasgowabout1800，andhavingsettledasaphysicianinLondon，startedthe’Mechanics’Institution，in1824。Broughamwasoneofthefirsttrustees；andtheinstitution，thoughexposedtoagooddealofridicule，managedtotakerootandbecometheparentofothers。In1827wasstartedtheSocietyforTheDiffusionofUsefulKnowledge，ofwhichBroughamwaspresident，andthecommitteeofwhichincludedJamesMill。Inthecourseofitstwentyyears’existenceitpublishedorsanctionedthepublicationbyCharlesKnightofagreatmassofpopularliterature。ThePennyMagazine1832-1845issaidtohavehadtwohundredthousandsubscribersattheendofitsfirstyearofexistence，Crudeandsuperficialasweresomeoftheseenterprises，theyclearlymarkedaveryimportantchange。CobbettandtheRadicaloratorsfoundenormousaudiencesreadytolistentotheirdoctrine。ChurchmenandDissenters，ToriesandRadicalswerefindingitnecessarybothtoeducateandtodisseminatetheirprinciplesbywriting；andasnewsocialstratawerebecomingaccessibletosuchinfluences，theiropinionsbegantoexerciseinturnamoredistinctreactionuponpoliticalandecclesiasticalaffairs。
　　NopartyfeltmoreconfidenceatthetendencyofthisnewintellectualfermentationthantheUtilitarians。
　　Theyhadadefinite，coherent，logicalcreed。Everystepwhichincreasedthefreedomofdiscussionincreasedtheinfluenceofthetruth。Theirdoctrineswerethetruth，ifnotthewholetruth。Onceallowthemtogetafulcrumandtheywouldmovetheworld。Bitbybittheirprinciplesoflegislation，ofeconomy，ofpoliticswerebeingacceptedinthemostdifferentquarters；
　　andeventhemoreintelligentoftheiropponentswereapplyingthem，thoughtheapplicationmightbepiecemealandimperfect。Itwasinvainthatanadversaryprotestedthathewasnotboundbylogic，andappealedtoexperienceinsteadoftheory。Lethimjustifyhisactionuponwhatgroundshepleased，hewas，inpointoffact，introducingtheleavenoftruedoctrine，anditmightbetrustedtoworkoutthedesirableresults。
　　ImustnowdealmoreindetailwiththeUtilitariantheories。Iwillonlyobserveingeneraltermsthattheirtriumphwasnotlikelytobeacceptedwithoutastruggle。Largeclassesregardedthemwithabsoluteabhorrence。Theirsuccess，iftheydidsucceed，wouldmeanthedestructionofreligiousbelief，ofsoundphilosophy，ofthegreatimportantecclesiasticalandpoliticalinstitutions，andprobablygeneralconfiscationofpropertyandtheruinofthefoundationsofsociety。
　　And，meanwhile，inspiteoftheprogressuponwhichIhavedwelt，thereweretwoproblems，atleast，ofenormousimportance，uponwhichitcouldscarcelybesaidthatanyprogresshadbeenmade。Thechurch，inthefirstplace，wasstillwhereithadbeen。Nochangehadbeenmadeinitsconstitution；
　　itwasstillthetypicalexampleofcorruptpatronage；andtheobjectofthehatredofallthoroughgoingRadicals。And，inthesecondplace，pauperismhadgrowntoappallingdimensionsduringthewar；andnoeffectualattempthadbeenmadetodealwithit。Behindpauperismthereweregreatsocialquestions，thediscontentandmiseryofgreatmassesofthelabouringpopulation。
　　Whateverreformsmightbemadeinotherpartsofthenaturalorder，hereweredifficultiesenoughtotaskthewisdomoflegislatorsandspeculatorsuponlegislativeprinciples。
　　NOTES：
　　1。LifeofMacaulay，p。114PopularEdition
　　2。Canning’sPoliticalCorrespondence，i。71-76。
　　3。12thDecember1826。
　　4。Bentham’sWorks，v。p。370。
　　5。Romilly’sattemptstoimprovethecriminallawbeganin1808。Forvariousnoticesofhisefforts，seehisLife3vols。1860：，especiallyvol。ii。243-54，309，321，331，369，371，389-91。RomillywasdeeplyinterestedinDumont’sThé；oriedesPeinesLé；gales1811，whichhereadinMS。andtriedtogetreviewedintheQuarterlyii。258，391；iii。136。Theremarksii。2-3onthe’stupiddreadofinnovation’andthesavagespiritinfusedintoEnglishmenbythehorrorsoftheFrenchrevolutionandworthnoticeinthisconnection。