In1828hedeclaredthathe’lamentedfromthebottomofhissoulthemassofevilandmiseryanddestructionofcapitalwhichthatlawinthecourseoftwelveyearshadproduced。’21Ricardo，meanwhile，andtheeconomistshadfromthefirstappliedtoagriculturetheprincipleswhichHuskissonappliedtomanufactures。22Huskisson’smelancholydeathhasleftusunabletosaywhetheruponthismatterhewouldhavebeenasconvertibleasPeel。InanycasethegeneralprincipleoffreetradewasasfullyadoptedbyHuskissonandCanningasbytheUtilitariansthemselves。TheUtilitarianscouldagainclaimtobeboththeinspirersofthefirstprinciples，andthemostconsistentincarryingoutthedeductions。
　　They，itistrue，werenotgenerallybiassedbyhavinganyinterestinrents。Theyweretobethealliesorteachersofthemanufacturingclasswhichbegantobedecidedlyopposedtothesquiresandtheoldorder。
　　Inoneveryimportanteconomicquestion，theUtilitariansnotonlyapprovedachangeofthelaw，butwerethemainagentsinbringingitabout。FrancisPlacewasthewire-puller，towhoseenergywasduetheabolitionoftheConspiracyLawsin1824。JosephHumeintheHouseofCommons，andM’Culloch，theneditoroftheScotsman，hadthemostconspicuouspartintheagitation，butPlaceworkedthemachineryofagitation。Thebillpassedin1824wasmodifiedbyanactof1825；butthemodification，owingtoPlace’sefforts，wasnotserious，andtheact，aswearetoldongoodauthority，’effectedarealemancipation，’andforthefirsttimeestablishedtherightof’collectivebargaining。’23Theremarkablethingisthatthisact，carriedontheprinciplesof’Radicalindividualism’andbytheeffortsofRadicalindividualists，wasthusafirststeptowardstheapplicationtopracticeofsocialistdoctrine。Placethoughtthattheresultoftheactwouldbenottheencouragement，butthedecline，oftrades-unions。Theunionshadbeenduetothenecessityofcombiningagainstoppressivelaws，andwouldceasewhenthoselawswereabolished。24Thismarksaverysignificantstageinthedevelopmentofeconomicopinion。
　　IV。CHURCHREFORM
　　ThemovementwhichatthisperiodwasmostconspicuouspoliticallywasthatwhichresultedinRomanCatholicemancipation，andhere，too，theUtilitariansmightbeanticipatingacompletetriumphoftheirprinciples。Theexistingdisqualifications，indeed，wereupheldbylittlebutthepurelyobstructivesentiment。WhenthedukeofYorksworethat’sohelphimGod！’hewouldopposethechangetothelast，hesummedupthewhole’argument’againstit，CanningandHuskissonhererepresentedthepolicynotonlyofPitt，butofCastlereagh。
　　TheWhigs，indeed，mightclaimtobethenaturalrepresentativesoftoleration。
　　ThechurchofEnglandwasthoroughlysubjugatedbythestate，andneitherWhignorTorywishedforafundamentalchange。ButthemostobviousdifferentiaofWhiggismwasadisliketotheecclesiasticalspirit。TheWhignoblewasgenerallymoreorlessofafreethinker；anduponsuchtopicsHollandHousedifferedlittlefromQueen’sSquarePlace，ordifferedonlyinaratherstricterreticence。BothWhigandTorymightacceptWarburton’sdoctrineofan’alliance’betweenchurchandstate。TheToryinferredthatthechurchshouldbesupported。Hisprescriptionformeetingdiscontentwas’moreyeomanry’andahandsomesumforchurch-building。TheWhigthoughtthatthechurchgotasufficientreturninbeingallowedtokeepitsrevenues。
　　OntheToryview，therelationmightbecomparedtothatofmanandwifeinChristiancountrieswhere，thoughthetwoareone，thehusbandisboundtofidelity。OntheWhigviewitwaslikeapolygamoussystem，wherethewifeisincompletesubjection，andthehusbandmaytakeanynumberofconcubines。TheWhignobleregardedthechurchassociallyuseful，buthewasbynomeansinclinedtosupportitsinterestswhentheyconflictedwithotherpoliticalconsiderations。Hehadbeensteadilyinfavourofdiminishingtheprivilegesoftheestablishment，andhadtakenpartinremovingthegrievancesoftheoldpenallaws。Hewasnotpreparedtoupholdprivilegeswhichinvolvedapalpabledangertohisorder。
　　ThispositionisillustratedbySydneySmith，theidealdivineofHollandHouse。ThePlymleyLetters25givehisviewsmostpithily。Smith，amanasfullofsoundsenseasofgenuinehumour，appealstotheprinciplesoftoleration，andiskeenlyalivetotheabsurdityofapersecutionwhichonlyirritateswithoutconversion。
　　Buthealsoappealstothedangerofthesituation。’IfBonapartelives，’26hesays，’andsomethingisnotdonetoconciliatetheCatholics，itseemstomeabsolutelyimpossiblebutthatwemustperish。’Wearelikethecaptainofashipattackedbyapirate，whoshouldbeginbyexamininghismeninthechurchcatechism，andforbidanyonetospongeorramwhohadnottakenthesacramentaccordingtotheformsofthechurchofEngland。HeconfessesfranklythatthestrengthoftheIrishiswithhimastrongmotiveforlisteningtotheirclaims。Totalkof’notactingfromfearismereparliamentarycant。’27AlthoughthedangerwhichfrightenedSmithwasevaded，thiswastheargumentwhichreallybroughtconvictioneventoToriesin1829。InanycasetheWhigs，whosegreatboastwastheirsupportoftoleration，wouldnotbepromptedbyanyQuixoticloveofthechurchtoencountertremendousperilsindefenceofitsprivileges。
　　Smith’szealhaditslimits。
　　HeobserveshumorouslyinhisprefacethathehadfoundhimselfaftertheReformBillengagedinthedefenceoftheNationalChurchagainstthearchbishopofCanterburyandthebishopofLondon。TheletterstoArchdeaconSingleton，writtenwhentheWhigswereflirtingwiththeRadicals，showhowmuchgoodanoldWhigcouldfindintheestablishment。ThismarksthedifferencebetweenthetrueWhigandtheUtilitarian。TheWhigwouldnotriskthecountryforthesakeofchurch；hewouldkeeptheclericalpowerstrictlysubordinatetothepowerofthestate，butthen，whenconsideredfromthepoliticalside，itwaspartofagovernmentsystemprovidinghimwithpatronage，andtobeguardedfromtherudeassaultsoftheRadicalreformer。TheUtilitarian，thoughforthemomenthewasinalliancewiththeWhig，regardedthecommonvictoryasasteptosomethingfarmoresweeping。HeobjectedtointoleranceasdecidedlyastheWhig，forabsolutefreedomofopinionwashismostcherisheddoctrine。Heobjectedstillmoreemphaticallytopersecutiononbehalfofthechurch，becauseheentirelyrepudiateditsdoctrines。
　　Theobjectiontospreadingtruedoctrinebyforceisastrongone，buthardlysostrongastheobjectiontoaforciblespreadoffalsedoctrine。
　　But，besidesthis，thechurchrepresentedtotheUtilitarianpreciselytheveryworstspecimenofthecorruptionsofthetime。TheCourtofChancerywasbadenough，butthewholeecclesiasticalsystemwithitsvastprizes，28itsopportunitiesforcorruptpatronage，itspluralismandnon-residencewasanevilonalargerscale。TheRadical，therefore，unliketheWhig，wasaninternecineenemyofthewholesystem。The’churchofEnglandsystem，’
　　asBenthamcalmlyremarks，is’ripefordissolution。’29Ihavealreadynoticedhisquaintproposalforgivingeffecttohisviews。Mill，intheWestminsterReview，denouncedthechurchofEnglandastheworstofallchurches。30TotheUtilitarian，inshort，theremovalofthedisqualificationofdissentersandCatholicswasthusonesteptotheconsummationwhichtheirlogicdemanded——theabsolutedisestablishmentanddisendowmentofthechurch，Conservativesingeneralanticipatedtheconfiscationofchurchrevenuesasanecessaryresultofreform；andsofarasthespiritofreformerswasrepresentedbytheUtilitariansandtheirRadicalallies，theyhadgoodgroundsforthefear。JamesMill’stheoryisbestindicatedbyalaterarticlepublishedintheLondonReviewofJuly1835。AfterpointingoutthatthechurchofEnglandretainsallthemachinerydesiredforsupportingpriestsandpreventingthegrowthofintellectandmorality，heproceedstoaskwhattheclergydofortheirmoney。Theyreadprayers，whichisapalpableabsurdity；theypreachsermonstospreadsuperstitiousnotionsoftheSupremeBeing，andperformceremonies——baptism，andsoforth——whichareobviouslysilly。
　　Thechurchisamerestatemachineworkedinsubserviencetothesinisterinterestofthegoverningclasses。Thewaytoreformitwouldbetoequalisethepay：lettheclergybeappointedbya’MinisterofPublicinstruction’
　　orthecountyauthorities；abolishthearticles，andconstituteachurch’withoutdogmasorceremonies’；andemploytheclergytogivelecturesonethics，botany，politicaleconomy，andsoforth，besidesholdingSundaymeetings，dancesdecentdancesaretobespeciallyinventedforthepurpose，andsocialmeals，whichwouldbearevivalofthe’agapai’oftheearlyChristians，Forthispurpose，however，itmightbenecessarytosubstituteteaandcoffeeforwine。Inotherwords，thechurchistobemadeintoapopularLondonUniversity，theplanillustratestheincapacityofanisolatedcliquetounderstandtherealtoneofpublicopinion。IneednotpronounceuponMill’sscheme，whichseemstohavesomesenseinit，butonewouldliketoknowwhetherNewmanreadhisarticle。
　　V。SINISTERINTERESTS
　　Inquestionsofforeignpolicy，oflawreform，ofpoliticaleconomy，andofreligioustests，theUtilitariansthussawthegradualapproximationtotheirmostcharacteristicviewsonthepartoftheWhigs，andastronginfiltrationofthesameviewsamongthelessobstructiveTories。Theyheldthelogicalcreed，towhichotherswereslowlyapproximating，eitherfromtheforceofargumentorfromthegreatsocialchangeswhichwerebringingnewclassesintopoliticalpower。
　　Themovementforparliamentaryreformwhichforatimeovershadowedallotherquestionsmightberegardedasacorollaryfromthepositionalreadywon。Briefly，itwasclearthatanewsocialstratumwasexercisingavastinfluence；thedoctrinespopularwithithadtobemoreorlessaccepted；
　　andtheonlyproblemworthconsiderationbypracticalmenwaswhetherornotsuchachangeshouldbemadeinthepoliticalmachineryaswouldenabletheinfluencetobeexercisedbydirectandconstitutionalmeans。TothepurelyobstructiveToryparliamentaryreformwasasteptothegeneralcataclysm，theproprietorofaborough，liketheproprietorofachurchpatronageorcommissioninthearmy，hadarighttohisvotes，andtoattackhisrightwassimplyconfiscationofprivateproperty。Thenextstepmightbetoconfiscatehisestate。ButeventhemoreintelligentConservativedrewthelineatsuchameasure。Canning，Huskisson，andevenPeelmightaccepttheviewsoftheUtilitariansinregardtoforeignpolicy，tolawreform，tofreetrade，ortheremovalofreligioustests，declaringonlythattheywereobeying’experience’insteadoflogic，andmightthereforegojustasfarastheypleased。Buttheywereallpledgedtoresistparliamentaryreformtotheutmost。Menthoroughlysteepedinofficiallife，andversedintheactualworkingofthemachinery，werenaturallyalivetothemagnitudeofthechangetobeintroduced。Theysawwithperfectclearnessthatitwouldamounttoarevolution。Theoldsysteminwhichtherulingclassescarriedonbusinessbyfamilyalliancesandbargainsbetweenministersandgreatmenwouldbeimpracticable。Thefactthatsomuchhadbeendoneinthewayofconcessiontotheideasofthenewclasseswasforthemanargumentagainstthechange。Ifthegoverningclasseswerereadytoreformabuses，whyshouldtheybemadeunabletogovern?Agradualenfranchisementofthegreattownsontheoldsystemmightbedesirable。SuchamanasHuskisson，representinggreatcommercialinterests，couldnotbeblindtothenecessity。Butathoroughreconstructionwasmorealarming。AsCanninghadurgedinagreatspeechatLiverpool，aHouseofCommons，thoroughlydemocratised，wouldbeincompatiblewiththeexistenceofthemonarchyandtheHouseofLords。Sotremendouslypowerfulabodywouldreducetheotherpartsoftheconstitutiontomereexcrescences，feebledragsuponthenewdriving-wheelinwhichthewholerealforcewouldbeconcentrated。
　　Thatthisexpressed，inpointoffact，aserioustruth，was，Itakeit，undeniable。Thesufficientpracticalanswerwas，thatchangewasinevitable。Torefusetoadapttheconstitutionalmachinerytothealteredpoliticalforceswasnottohindertheirgrowth，buttomakearevolutionnecessary。When，accordingly，theexcludedclassesbeganseriouslytodemandadmission，theonlyquestioncametoliebetweenviolentandpeaceablemethods。Thealarmwithwhichourfatherswatchedtheprogressofthemeasuremayseemtousexaggerated，buttheyscarcelyoverestimatedthemagnitudeofthechange。Theoldrulersweretakinganewpartnerofsuchpower，thatwhateverauthoritywaslefttothemmightseemtobeleftonsufferance。Assoonashebecameconsciousofhisstrength，theywouldbereducedtononentities。TheUtilitarianstooksomepartinthestruggle，andwelcomedthevictorywithanticipationsdestinedtobe，forthetimeatleast，cruellydisappointed。Buttheywerestillasmallminority，whoseviewsratherscandalisedtheleadersofthepartywithwhichtheywereintemporaryalliance。Theprinciplesuponwhichtheybasedtheirdemands，asformulatedbyJamesMill，looked，asweshallsee，farbeyondtheconcessionsofthemoment。
　　Oneotherpoliticalchangeissignificant，thoughIamunabletogiveanadequateaccountofit。Bentham’sdenunciationof’sinisterinterests’——oneofhisleadingtopics——correspondstothequestionofsinecures，whichwasamongthemosteffectivetopicsofRadicaldeclamation。Thenecessityoflimitingtheinfluenceofthecrownandexcluding’placemen’fromtheHouseofCommonshadbeenoneofthetraditionalWhigcommonplaces，andalittlehadbeendonebyBurke’sactof1782towardslimitingpensionsandabolishingobsoleteoffices。
　　WhenEnglishRadicalismrevived，theassaultwasrenewedinparliamentandthepress。Duringthewarlittlewasachieved，thougharevivaloftheoldcomplaintsaboutplacemeninparliamentwasamongthefirstsymptomsoftherisingsentiment。In1812anattackwasmadeuponthe’tellersoftheExchequer。’Romilly31saysthatthevalueofoneoftheseofficeshadrisento£；26，000or£；27，000ayear。Theincomecamechieflyfromfees，andtheactualwork，whateveritwas，wasdonebydeputy。Thescandalwasenormousatatimewhenthestressuponthenationwasalmostunbearable，OneofthetellershipswasheldbyamemberofthegreatGrenvillefamily，whoannouncedthattheyregardedthedemandforreformasapersonalattackuponthem。Theopposition，therefore，couldnotmusterevenitsusualstrength，andthemotionforinquirywasrejected。