Apithystatementofhisviewisgiveninaremarkableletter，dated1stFebruary1823，totheprincewhowassoontobecomeCharlesX。2TheFrenchgovernmenthaddeclaredthatapeoplecouldonlyreceiveafreeconstitutionasagiftfromtheirlegitimatekings。ShouldtheEnglishministry，saysCanning，afterthisdeclaration，supporttheFrenchintheirattackupontheconstitutionalgovernmentofSpain，itwouldbedrivenfromofficeamid’theexecrationofToriesandWhigsalike。’HethoughtthatthedoctrineofthesovereigntyofthepeoplewaslessalientothespiritoftheBritishConstitutionthantheoppositedoctrineofthelegitimists。
　　Intheearlydays，whenCanningsatatthefeetofPitt，thewar，ifnotintheireyesanAnti-Jacobincrusade，hadtobesupportedbystimulatingtheAnti-Jacobinsentiment，inlaterdays，thewarhadcometobeastruggleagainsttheoppressionofnationsbyforeigndespots。CanningcouldnowaccepttheversionofPitt’spolicywhichcorrespondedtothelaterphase。
　　Englishmeningeneralhadnomoresympathyfordespotswhoclaimedadivinerightthanfordespotswhoactedinthenameofdemocracy——especiallywhenthedespotsthreatenedtointerferewithBritishtrade。WhenCanningcalled’thenewworldintoexistencetoredressthebalanceoftheold，’3hedeclaredthatEnglishpolicyshouldresistthreatsfromtheHolyAlliancedirectedagainstsomeofourbestcustomers，thegeneralapprovalhadspecialforceamongtheUtilitarians。IntheSouthAmericanStatesBenthamhadfoundeagerproselytes，andhadhopedtobecomeaSolon，HehadbeenconsultedbytheconstitutionalistsinSpainandPortugal；andheandhisdisciples，JosephHumeinparticular，hadjoinedtheGreekCommittee，andtriedtoregenerateAthensbysoundUtilitariantracts。AllEnglishLiberalssympathisedwiththevariousmovementswhichweremoreorlessfavouredbyCanning’spolicy；buttheUtilitarianscouldalsoseeinthemtheopeningofnewfieldsalreadywhitefortheharvest。
　　Theforeignpolicywassignificant，itprovedthatthewar，whateverelseithaddone，hadnotbroughtbacktheoldorder；andtheoldBritishtraditionsinfavouroflibertyofspeechandactionwouldrevivenowthattheywerenolongertrammelledbythefearsofadestructiverevolution。ThedaysofJulyin1830gavefreshimportancetothereactionofforeignuponEnglishpolitics。
　　II。LAWREFORM
　　Meanwhile，however，theUtilitarianshadafarstrongerinterestindomesticproblems。Inthefirstplace，inBentham’sespecialprovinceacompletechangeoffeelinghadtakenplace。
　　RomillywasBentham’searliestdisciplesoBenthamsaid，andlookeduptohimwith’filialreverence。’Every’reformatiuncle’introducedbyRomillyinparliamenthadbeenfirstbroughttoBentham，tobeconnedoverbythetwo。4WithgreatdifficultyRomillyhadgottwoorthreemeasuresthroughtheHouseofCommons，generallytobethrownoutbyEldon’sinfluenceintheLords。5AfterRomilly’sdeathin1818，thecausewastakenupbytheWhigphilosopher，SirJamesMackintosh，andmadeadistinctstepinadvance，thoughtherewerestillobstaclesintheupperregions，acommitteewasobtainedtoconsiderthefrequencyofcapitalpunishment，andmeasureswerepassedtoabolishitinparticularcases，Finally，in1823，thereformwasadoptedbyPeel。Peelwasdestinedtorepresentinthemoststrikingwaytheprocessbywhichnewideasweregraduallyinfiltratingtheuppersphere。ThoughstillastrongToryandarepresentativeoftheuniversityofOxford，hewascloselyconnectedwiththemanufacturingclasses，andhadbecomeaware，ashewrotetoCroker23rdMarch1820，thatpublicopinionhadgrowntobetoolargeforitsaccustomedchannels。
　　AsHomeSecretary，hetookupthewholesubjectofthecriminallaw，andpassedinthenextyearsaseriesofactsconsolidatingandmitigatingthelaw，andrepealingmanyoldstatutes。Ameasureofequalimportancewashisestablishmentin1829ofthemetropolitanpoliceforce，whichatlastputanendtotheoldchaoticmuddledescribedbyColquhounofparishofficersandconstables。Othersignificantlegalchangesmarkedtheopeningofanewera。Eldonwastheveryincarnationofthespiritofobstruction；
　　andtheCourtofChancery，overwhichhepresidedforaquarterofacentury，wasthoughttobethetypicalstrongholdoftheevilprinciplesdenouncedbyBentham，Anattackin1823uponEldonwasmadeintheHouseofCommonsbyJohnWilliams1777-1846，afterwardsajudge。Eldon，thoughprofoundlyirritatedbythepersonalimputationsinvolved，consentedtotheappointmentofacommission，whichreportedin1825，andrecommendedmeasuresofreform。
　　In1828，BroughammadeagreatdisplayuponwhichhehadconsultedBentham。6Inaspeechofsixhours’lengthhegaveasummaryofexistingabuses，whichmaystillbereadwithinterest。7CommissionswereappointedtoinvestigatetheprocedureoftheCommonLawCourtandthelawofrealproperty，Anothercommission，intendedtocodifythecriminallaw，wasappointedin1833，Broughamsaysthatof’sixtycapitaldefects’describedinhisspeech，fifty-fivehadbeenremoved，orwereincourseofremoval，whenhisspeecheswerecollectedi。e。，1838。AnotherspeechofBrougham’sin1828dealtwiththecarryingintoexecutionofafavouriteplanofBentham’s——theformationoflocalcourts，whichultimatelybecamethemoderncountycourts。8Thefactsaresignificantofastartlingchange——
　　nolessthananabrupttransitionfromthereignofentireapathytoareignofcontinuousreformextendingoverthewholerangeoflaw。TheReformBillacceleratedthemovement，butithadbeenstartedbeforeBentham’sdeath。Thegreatstone，solongimmovable，wasfairlysetrolling。
　　Bentham’sinfluence，again，inbringingaboutthechangeisundeniable。HewasgreatlydissatisfiedwithBrougham’sspeech，and，indeed，wouldhavebeendissatisfiedwithanythingshortofacompletelogicalapplicationofhiswholesystem。HeheldBroughamtobe’insincere，’9atrimmerandpopularity-hunter，butausefulinstrument，Brougham’sastonishingvanityandself-seekingpromptedandpervertedhisamazingactivity，Herepresentstheprocess，perhapsnecessary，bywhichaphilosopher’sideashavetobemodifiedbeforetheycanbeappliedtopracticalapplication。Brougham，however，couldspeakgenerouslyofmennolongerinapositiontoexcitehisjealousy。
　　Hesaysintheprefacetohisfirstspeechthat’theageoflawreformandtheageofJeremyBentham’werethesamething，anddeclaresBenthamtobethe’firstlegalphilosopher’whohadappearedintheworld。AsthechiefadvocatesofBenthamhereckonsRomilly，hisparliamentaryrepresentative；
　　Dumont，hisliteraryinterpreter；andJamesMill，who，inhisarticleupon’jurisprudence，’hadpopularisedtheessentialprinciplesofthedoctrine。
　　TheUtilitarianshadatlastbrokenupthebarriersofobstructionandsetthestreamflowing。WhigsandToriesweretakinguptheirtheories。Theynaturallyexaggeratedinsomerespectsthecompletenessofthetriumph。TheEnglishlawhasnotyetbeencodified，anditwascharacteristicoftheBenthamiteschooltoexaggeratethefacilityofthatprocess，intheirhatredof’judge-madelaw’theyassumedtooeasilythatallthingswouldbearrangedintoconvenientpigeon-holesassoonas’JudgeandCo。’wereabolished。Itwasacharacteristicerrortoexaggeratethesimplicityoftheirproblem，andtofailtoseethat’judge-made’lawcorrespondstoanecessaryinductiveprocessbywhichthecomplexandsubtledifferenceshavetobegraduallyascertainedandfittedintoasystematicstatement。Oneotherremarksuggestsitself，theUtilitarianssawinthedoggedobstructivenessofEldonandhisliketheonegreatobstacletoreform。Itdidnotoccurtothemthattheclumsinessofparliamentarylegislationmightbeanotherdifficulty。Theyfailedtonoticedistinctlyonetendencyoftheirreforms。Tomakeacodeyourequireasovereignstrongenoughtodominatethelawyers，notasysteminwhichlawyersareanessentialpartofasmallgoverningclass。Codification，inshort，meanscentralisationinonedepartment。BlindnesstosimilarresultselsewherewasacharacteristicoftheUtilitarianthinkers。
　　III。ECONOMICREFORM
　　InanotherdepartmenttheUtilitariansboasted，andalsowithgoodreason，ofthetriumphoftheirtenets，Politicaleconomywasintheascendant。ProfessorshipswerebeingfoundedinOxford，Cambridge，10London，andEdinburgh，Mrs。
　　Marcet’sConversations1818werespreadingthedoctrineamongbabesandsucklings，theUtilitarianswerethesacredbandwhodefendedthestrictestorthodoxyagainstallopponents。Theyspokeasrecognisedauthoritiesuponsomeofthemostvitalquestionsoftheday，ofwhichIneedhereonlynoticeFreeTrade，thedoctrinemostcloselyassociatedwiththeteachingoftheirreveredAdamSmith。In1816Ricardoremarkswithsatisfactionthattheprinciple’isdailyobtainingconverts’evenamongthemostprejudicedclasses；andherefersespeciallytoapetitioninwhichtheclothiersofGloucestershire11expressedtheirwillingnesstogiveupallrestrictions。Therewas，indeed，animportantset-offagainstthisgain，thelandownerswerebeingpledgedtoprotection，theyhaddecidedthatinspiteofthepeace，thepriceofwheatmustbekeptupto80s。
　　Aquarter，theywouldnolongerbecomplimentedasAdamSmithhadcomplimentedthemontheirsuperiorliberality，andwerenowcreatingabarrieronlytobestormedafteralongstruggle。Meanwhiletheprinciplewasmakingrapidwayamongtheirrivals。OnesymptomwastheadoptionbytheLondonmerchantsin1820ofafamouspetitiononbehalfoffreetrade。12ItwasdrawnupbyThomasTooke1774-1858，whohadlongbeenactivelyengagedintheRussiantrade，andwhoseHistoryofPricesisinsomerespectsthemostvaluableeconomictreatiseofthetime。Tookegivesacuriousaccountofhisactiononthisoccasion。13Hecollectedafewfriendsengagedincommerce，whowereopposedtothecornlaws。Hefoundthatseveralofthemhad’crudeandconfused’notionsuponthesubject，andthateachheldthathisownspecialinterestsshouldbeexemptedonsomepretextfromthegeneralrule。Aftervariousdexterouspiecesofdiplomacy，however，hesucceededinobtainingthesignatureofSamuelThornton，agovernorofthebankofEngland，andultimatelyprocuredasufficientnumberofsignaturesbyprivatesolicitation，HewasfavourablyreceivedbythePrimeMinisterLordLiverpool，andVansittartthenChancelloroftheExchequer，andfinallygotthepetitionpresentedtotheHouseofCommonsbyAlexanderBaringafterwardsLordAshburton。TookeremarksthattheLiverpooladministrationwasinadvance，notonlyofthepublicgenerally，butofthe’mercantilecommunity。’GlasgowandManchester，however，followedinthesamesteps，andthepetitionbecameakindofofficialmanifestooftheorthodoxdoctrine。
　　ThePoliticalEconomyClubformednextyearatTooke’sinstigationApril18，1821wasintendedtohastentheprocessofdispersingcrudeandconfusedideas。ItwasessentiallyanorganoftheUtilitarianpropaganda。
　　TheinfluenceoftheeconomistsuponpublicpolicywasshownbytheimportantmeasurescarriedthroughchieflybyHuskisson，Huskisson1770-1830wasatypeofthemostintelligentofficialofhistime。LikehismorebrilliantfriendCanning，hehadbeenintroducedintoofficeunderPitt，andretainedaprofoundreverenceforhisearlyleader。Huskissonwasathoroughmanofbusiness，capableofwrestlingwithblue-books，ofunderstandingthesinking-fund，andhavingtheoriesaboutthecurrency；amasteroffiguresandstatisticsandthewholemachineryofcommerce。Thougheminentlyuseful，hemightatanymomentbeapplyingsomeawkwarddoctrinefromAdamSmith。
　　HuskissonbegantheseriesofeconomicreformswhichwerebroughttotheirfulldevelopmentbyPeelandGladstone。Thecollectionofhisspeeches14incidentallybringsoutveryclearlyhisrelationtotheUtilitarians。ThemostremarkableisagreatspeechofApril24，182615uponthestateofthesilkmanufacture，ofwhichCanningdeclaredthathehadneverheardoneabler，orwhichmadeadeeperimpressionupontheHouse。Inthishereviewshispolicy，goingoverthemostimportantfinancialmeasuresoftheprecedingperiod。Theymadeanewera，andhedatesthebeginningofthemovementfromtheLondonpetition，andthe’luminousspeech’madebyBaringwhenpresentingit。Wefollowedpublicopinion，hesays，anddidnotcreateit。16Adoptingtheessentialprinciplesofthepetition，thegovernmenthadinthefirstplacesetfreethegreatwoollentrade。ThesilktradehadbeenemancipatedbyabolishingtheSpitalfieldActspassedinthepreviouscentury，whichenabledmagistratestofixtheratesofwages。Theprincipleofprohibitionhadbeenabandoned，thoughprotectivedutiesremained。Thenavigationlawshadbeenmateriallyrelaxed，andstepstakentowardsremovingrestrictionsofdifferentkindsupontradewithFranceandwithIndia。OnesymptomofthechangewastheconsolidationofthecustomlaweffectedbyJamesDeaconHume1774-1842，anofficialpatronisedbyHuskisson，andanoriginalmemberofthePoliticalEconomyClub。Byalawpassedin1825，fivehundredstatutesdatingfromthetimeofEdwardIwererepealed，andtheessenceofthelawgiveninavolumeofmoderatesize。Finally，theremovalofprohibitionswasunderminingthesmugglers。
　　ThemeasuresuponwhichHuskissonjustlypridedhimselfmighthavebeendictatedbythePoliticalEconomyClubitself。Sofarastheywenttheywereanapplicationofthedoctrinesofitsthoroughgoingmembers，ofMill，Ricardo，andtheorthodoxschool。
　　Theyindeedsupportedhiminthepress。TheMorningChronicle，whichexpressedtheirviews，declaredhimtobethemostvirtuousminister，thatisintrueUtilitarianphrase，themostdesirousofnationalwelfarewhohadeverlived。ThepraiseofRadicalswouldbenotaltogetherwelcome。Canning，insupportinghisfriend，maintainedthatsoundcommercialpolicybelongednomoretotheWhigsthantotheTories。HuskissonandhewerefaithfuldisciplesofPitt，whosetreatywithFrancein1786，assailedbyFoxandtheWhigs，hadbeenthefirstpracticalapplicationoftheWealthofNations。
　　Neitherparty，perhaps，couldclaimaspecialconnectionwithgoodorbadpoliticaleconomy。Andcertainlyneitherwaspreparedtoincurpoliticalmartyrdominzealforscientifictruth。Aquestionwasbeginningtocometothefrontwhichwouldmakepartylinesdependentuponeconomictheories，andHuskisson’sviewofthiswascharacteristic。
　　ThespeechfromwhichIhavequotedbeginswithanindignantretortuponamemberwhohadappliedtohimBurke’sphraseaboutaperfect-bredmetaphysicianexceedingthedevilinmalignityandcontemptformankind。Huskissonfrequentlyprotestedevenagainstthemilderepithetoftheorist。Heassertedmostemphaticallythatheappealedto’experience’andnotto’theory，’aslipperydistinctionwhichfindsagoodexposureinBentham’sBookofFallacies。17Thedoctrine，however，wasaconvenientoneforHuskisson。Hecouldappealtoexperiencetoshowthatcommercialrestrictionshadinjuredthewoollentrade，andtheirabsencebenefitedthecottontrade，18andwhenhewasnotbeingtauntedwiththeories，hewouldstatewithperfectclearnessthegeneralfreetradeargument。19Buthehadtokeepaneyetotheuncomfortabletrickswhichtheoriessometimesplay。Hearguedemphaticallyin182520thatanalogybetweenmanufacturesandagricultureis’illogical。’Hedoesnotwishtodepressthepriceofcorn，buttokeepitatsuchalevelthatourmanufacturesmaynotbehamperedbydearfood。
　　Herehewasforcedbystressofpoliticstodifferfromhiseconomicalfriends。Thecountrygentlemandidnotwishtopaydutiesonhissilkorhisbrandy，buthehadadirectandobviousinterestinkeepingupthepriceofcorn。HuskissonhadhimselfsupportedtheCornBillof1815，butitwasbecomingmoreandmoreobviousthatarevisionwouldbenecessary。