Theguardians，itwasassumed，couldalwaysfind’work，’andtheyweretorelievetheable-bodiedwithoutapplyingtheworkhousetest。Theact，readilyadopted，thusbecamealandmarkinthegrowthoflaxity。13*
　　Attheendofthecenturyarapiddevelopmentofpauperismhadtakenplace。
　　Theexpense，asEdenhadtocomplain，haddoubledintwentyyears。Thistookplacesimultaneouslywiththegreatdevelopmentofmanufactures。Itisnotperhapssurprising，thoughitmaybemelancholy，thatincreaseofwealthshallbeaccompaniedbyincreaseofpauperism。Wheretherearemanyrichmen，therewillbeabetterfieldforthievesandbeggars。Alifeofdependencebecomeseasierthoughitneednotnecessarilybeadopted。Whatevermayhavebeentherelationofthetwophenomena，thesocialrevolutionmadetheoldsocialarrangementsmoreinadequate。greataggregationsofworkmenwereformedintowns，whichwerestillonlyvillagesinalegalsense。Fluctuationsoftrade，duetowarorspeculation，broughtdistresstotheimprovident；andtheoldassumptionthateverymanhadaproperplaceinasmallcircle，wherehisneighboursknewallabouthim，wasfurtherthaneverfrombeingverified。
　　Onepainfulresultwasalreadybeginningtoshowitself。Neglectedchildreningreattownshadalreadyexcitedcompassion。ThomasCoram1668?-1751
　　hadbeenshockedbythesightofdyingchildrenexposedinthestreetsofLondon，andsucceededinestablishingtheFoundlingHospitalfoundedin1742。In1762，JonasHanway1712-1786obtainedalawforboardingoutchildrenbornwithinthebillsofmortality。Thedemandforchildren’slabour，producedbythefactories，seemednaturallyenoughtoofferabetterchanceforextendingsuchcharities。Unfortunatelyamongthepeoplewhotookadvantageofitwereparishofficials，eagertogetchildrenofftheirhands，andmanufacturersconcernedonlytomakemoneyoutofchildishlabour。HencearosetheshamefulsystemforwhichremediesasIshallhavetonoticehadtobesoughtinalatergeneration。
　　Meanwhiletheoutbreakoftherevolutionarywarhadmadethequestionurgent。WhenManchestertradesuffered，asEdentellsusinhisreports，manyworkmenenlistedinthearmy，andlefttheirchildrentobesupportedbytheparish。Badseasonsfollowedin1794and1795，andtherewasgreatdistressintheagriculturaldistricts。Thegoverningclassesbecamealarmed。
　　InDecember1795Whitbreadintroducedabillprovidingthatthejusticesofthepeaceshouldfixaminimumrateofwages。Uponamotionforthesecondreading，Pittmadethefamousspeech12thDecemberincludingtheoften-quotedstatementthatwhenamanhadafamily，reliefshouldbe’amatterofrightandhonour，insteadofagroundofopprobriumandcontempt。’14*PitthadinthesamespeechshownhisreadingofAdamSmithbydwellinguponthegeneralobjectionstostateinterferencewithwages，andhadarguedthatmorewastobegainedbyremovingtherestrictionsuponthefreemovementoflabour。
　　Heundertooktoproduceacomprehensivemeasure；andanelaboratebillof130clauseswaspreparedin1796。15*Theratesweretobeusedtosupplementinadequatewages；’schoolsofindustry’weretobeformedforthesupportofsuperabundantchildren；loansmightbemadetothepoorforthepurchaseofacow；16*andthepossessionofpropertywasnottodisqualifyforthereceivingrelief。Inshort，thebillseemstohavebeen17*modelofmisappliedbenevolence。ThedetailswerekeenlycriticisedbyBentham，andthebillnevercametothebirth。Othertopicswerepressingenoughatthistimetoaccountforthefailureofameasuresovastinitsscope。Meanwhilesomethinghadtobedone。On6thMay1795theBerkshiremagistrateshadpassedcertainresolutionscalledfromtheirplaceofmeeting，the’SpeenhamlandActofParliament。’Theyprovidedthattherateofwagesofalabourershouldbeincreasedinproportiontothepriceofcornandtothenumberofhisfamily——arulewhich，asEdenobserves，tendedtodiscourageeconomyoffoodintimesofscarcity。Theyalsosanctionedthedisastrousprincipleofpayingpartofthewagesoutofrates。Anactpassedin1796repealedtheoldrestrictionsuponout-doorrelief；andthus，duringthehardtimesthatweretofollow，thepoor-lawswereadaptedtoproducethestateofthingsinwhich，asCobbettsaysin1821’everylabourerwhohaschildrenisnowregularlyandconstantlyapauper。’18*Theresultrepresentsacuriouscompromise。Thelandowners，whetherfrombenevolenceorfearofrevolution，desiredtomeettheterribledistressofthetimes。Unfortunatelytheirspasmodicinterferencewasguidedbynofixedprinciples，andacteduponaclassofinstitutionsnotorganiseduponanydefinitesystem。Thegeneraleffectseemstohavebeenthattheratepayers，nolongerallowedto’depopulate，’soughttoturnthecompulsorystreamofcharitypartlyintotheirownpockets。Iftheywereforcedtosupportpaupers，theycouldcontrivetosavethepaymentofwages。Theycouldusethelabouroftherate-supportedpauperinsteadofemployingindependentworkmen。Theevilsthusproducedledbeforelongtomostimportantdiscussions。19*
　　Theordinaryviewofthepoor-lawwasinverted。Theprominentevilwastherecklessincreaseofadegradedpopulationinsteadoftherestrictionofpopulation。Eden’sownviewissufficientlyindicativeofthelightinwhichthefactsshowedthemselvestointelligenteconomists。AsadiscipleofAdamSmith，heacceptstherathervaguedoctrineofhismasteraboutthe’balance’
　　betweenlabourandcapital。Iflabourexceedscapital，hesays，thelabourermuststarve’inspiteofallpoliticalregulations。’20*Hethereforelookswithdisfavouruponthewholepoor-lawsystem。Itistoodeeplyrootedtobeabolished，buthethinksthattheamounttoberaisedshouldnotbepermittedtoexceedthesumleviedonanaverageofpreviousyears。TheonlycertainresultofPitt’smeasurewouldbeavastexpenditureuponadoubtfulexperiment：
　　andonemainpurposeofhispublicationwastopointouttheobjectionstotheplan。Hedesireswhatseemedatthattimetobealmosthopeless，anationalsystemofeducation；buthismaindoctrineisthewisdomofrelianceuponindividualeffort。Thetruthofthemaxim’pastropgouverner，’hesays，21*
　　hasneverbeenbetterillustratedthanbythecontrastbetweenfriendlysocietiesandthepoor-laws。Friendlysocietieshadbeenknown，thoughtheywerestillonahumblescale，fromthebeginningofthecentury，andhadtendedtodiminishpauperisminspiteofthepoor-laws。Edengivesmanyaccountsofthem。TheyseemtohavesuggestedaschemeproposedbytheworthyFrancisMaseres11731-1824
　　in1772fortheestablishmentoflifeannuities。AbilltogiveeffecttothisschemepassedtheHouseofCommonsin1773withthesupportofBurkeandSavile，butwasthrownoutintheHouseofLords。In1786JohnAclanddied1796，aDevonshireclergymanandjusticeofthepeace，proposedaschemeforunitingthewholenationintoakindoffriendlysocietyforthesupportofthepoorwhenoutofworkandinoldage。ItwascriticisedbyJohnHowlett1731-1804，aclergymanwhowrotemuchuponthepoor-laws。
　　Heattributesthegrowthofpauperismtotheriseofprices，andcalculatesthatoutofanincreasedexpenditureof£；700，000，£；219，000hadbeenraisedbytherich，andtheremainder’squeezedoutoftheflesh，blood，andbonesofthepoor。’AnactforestablishingAcland’scrudeschemefailednextyearinparliament。22*Themeritofthesocieties，accordingtoEden，wastheirtendencytostimulateself-help；andhowtopreservethatmerit，whilemakingthemcompulsory，wasadifficultproblem。Ihavesaidenoughtomarkacriticalandcharacteristicchangeofopinion。Onesourceofevilpointedoutbycontemporarieshadbeentheabsenceofanycentralpowerwhichcouldregulateandsystematisetheactionofthepettylocalbodies。Theverypossibilityofsuchorganisation，however，seemstohavebeensimplyinconceivable。Whenthelocalbodiesbecamelavishinsteadofover-frugal，theoneremedysuggestedwastoabolishthesystemaltogether。
　　II。THEPOLICE
　　Thesystemof’self-government’showeditsweaksideinthisdirection。
　　Itmeantthatanimportantfunctionwasintrustedtosmallbodies，quiteincompetentofactingupongeneralprinciples，andperfectlycapableofpettyjobbing，whenunrestrainedbyanyeffectivesupervision。Inanotherdirectionthesametendencywasevenmorestrikinglyillustrated。Municipalinstitutionswerealmostattheirlowestpointofdecay。ManchesterandBirminghamweretwoofthelargestandmostrapidlygrowingtowns。BytheendofthecenturyManchesterhadapopulationof90，000andBirminghamof70，000。Bothwereruled，asfarastheywereruled，bytheremnantsofoldmanorialinstitutions。
　　Aikin23*observesthat’Manchesterin1795remainsanopentown；destituteprobablytoitsadvantageofacorporation，andunrepresentedinparliament。’
　　Itwasgovernedbya’borough-reeve’andtwoconstableselectedannuallyatthecourt-leet。WilliamHutton，thequainthistorianofBirmingham，tellsusin1783thatthetownwasstilllegallyavillage，withahighandlowbailiff，a’highandlowtaster，’two’affeerers，’andtwo’leather-sealers。’
　　In1752ithadbeenprovidedwitha’courtofrequests’，fortherecoveryofsmalldebts，andin1769withabodyofcommissionerstoprovideforlightingthetown。Thiswasthesystembywhich，withsomemodifications，BirminghamwasgovernedtillaftertheReformBill。24*Huttonboasts25*thatnotownwasbettergovernedorhadfewerofficers。’Atownwithoutacharter，’
　　hesays，’isatownwithoutashackle。’Perhapshechangedhisopinionswhenhiswarehouseswereburntin1791，andthetownwasatthemercyofthemobtillaregimentof’lighthorse’couldbecalledin。AikinandHutton，however，reflectthegeneralopinionatatimewhenthetowncorporationshadbecomecloseandcorruptbodies，andwerechiefly’shackles’upontheenergyofactivemembersofthecommunity。Imustleavetheexplanationofthisdecaytohistorians。Iwillonlyobservethatwhatwouldneedexplanationwouldseemtoberathertheabsencethanthepresenceofcorruption。TheEnglishboroughwasnotstimulatedbyanypressurefromacentralgovernment；norwasitasemi-independentbodyinwhicheverycitizenhadthestrongestmotivesforcombiningtosupportitsindependenceagainstneighbouringtownsorinvadingnobles。Thelowerclasseswereignorant，andprobablywouldberatherhostilethanfavourabletoanysuchmodestinterferencewithdirtanddisorderaswouldcommendthemselvestotheofficials。Naturally，powerwaslefttothelittlecliquesofprosperoustradesmen，whoformedclosecorporations，andspenttherevenuesuponfeastsorsquanderedthembycorruptpractices。Here，asinthepoor-law，theinsufficiencyoftheadministrativebodysuggeststocontemporaries，notitsreform，butitssuperfluity。
　　ThemoststrikingaccountofsomeofthenaturalresultsisinColquhoun’s26*
　　TreatiseonthePoliceoftheMetropolis。PatrickColquhoun1745-1820，anenergeticScot，wasbornatDumbartonin1745，hadbeeninbusinessatGlasgow，wherehewasprovostin1782and1783，andin1789settledinLondon。
　　In1792heobtainedthroughDundasanappointmenttooneofthenewpolicemagistraciescreatedbyanactofthatyear。Hetookanactivepartinmanyschemesofsocialreform；andhisbookgivesanaccountoftheinvestigationsbywhichhisschemesweresuggestedandjustified。Itmustbesaid，however，parenthetically，thathisstatisticsscarcelychallengeimplicitconfidence。
　　LikeSinclairandEden，hesawtheimportanceofobtainingfactsandfigures，buthisstatementsaresuspiciouslypreciseandelaborate。27*Thebroadfactsareclearenough。
　　Londonwas，hesays，threemilesbroadandtwenty-fiveincircumference。
　　Thepopulationin1801was641，000。Itwasthelargesttown，andapparentlythemostchaoticcollectionofdwellingsinthecivilisedworld。Therewere，asColquhounasserts28*inanoften-quotedpassage，20，000peopleinit，whogotupeverymorningwithoutknowinghowtheywouldgetthroughtheday。