Therewere5000public-houses，and50，000womensupported，whollyorpartly，byprostitution。Therevenuesraisedbycrimeamounted，ashecalculates，toanannualsumof£；2，000，000。Therewerewholeclassesofprofessionalthieves，moreorlessorganisedingangs，whichactedinsupportofeachother。Thereweregangsontheriver，whoboardedshipsatnight，orlayinwaitroundthewarehouses。Thegovernmentdockyardsweresystematicallyplundered，andthesamearticleoftensoldfourtimesovertotheofficials。
TheabsenceofpatrolsgaveamplechancetothehighwaymenthenpeculiartoEngland。Theircareers，commemoratedintheNewgateCalendar，hadacertainflavourofRobinHoodromance，andtheirrankswererecruitedfromdissipatedapprenticesandtradesmenindifficulty。ThefieldsroundLondonweresoconstantlyplunderedthattherentwasmateriallylowered。Halfthehackneycoachmen，hesays，29*wereinleaguewiththieves。Thenumberofreceivinghousesforstolengoodshadincreasedintwentyyearsfrom300to3000。30*
Coiningwasaflourishingtrade，andaccordingtoColquhounemployedseveralthousandpersons。31*Gamblinghadtakenafreshstartabout1777and1778；32*
andthekeepersoftableshadalwaysmoneyenoughatcommandtomakeconvictionsalmostimpossible。Frenchrefugeesattherevolutionhadintroducedrougeetnoir；andColquhounestimatesthesumsyearlylostingambling-housesatover£；7，000，000。ThegamblersmightperhapsappealnotonlytothepracticesoftheirbettersinthedaysofFox，buttothepubliclotteries。
Colquhounhadvariouscorrespondents，whodonotventuretoproposetheabolitionofasystemwhichsanctionedthepractice，butwhohopetodiminishthefacilityforsupplementarybettingontheresultsoftheofficialdrawing。
ThewarhadtendedtoincreasethenumberoflooseanddesperatemarauderswhoswarmedinthevastlabyrinthofLondonstreets。WhenweconsiDerthenatureofthepolicebywhichtheseevilsweretobechecked，andthecriminallawwhichtheyadministered，thewonderislessthatthereweresometimesdesperateriotsasin1780thanthatLondonshouldhavebeeneverabletoresistamob。Colquhoun，thoughapatrioticBriton，hastoadmitthattheFrenchdespotshadatlastcreatedanefficientpolice。33*Theemperor，JosephII，hesays，inquiredforanAustriancriminalsupposedtohaveescapedtoParis。Youwillfindhim，repliedtheheadoftheFrenchpolice，atNo。
93ofsuchastreetinViennaonthesecond-floorroomlookinguponsuchachurch；andtherehewas。InEnglandacriminalcouldhidehimselfinaherdofhislike，occasionallydisturbedbytheinroadofa’BowStreetrunner，’
theemissaryofthe’tradingjustices，’formerlyrepresentedbythetwoFieldings。
Anactof1792createdsevennewoffices，tooneofwhichColquhounhadbeenappointed。Theyhadonehundredandeighty-ninepaidofficersunderthem。34*
Therewerealsoaboutonethousandconstables。Theseweresmalltradesmenorartisansuponwhomthedutywasimposedwithoutremunerationforayearbytheirparish，thatis，byoneofseventyindependentbodies。A’Tyburnticket，’giveninrewardforobtainingtheconvictionofacriminalexemptedamanfromthedischargeofsuchoffices，andcouldbeboughtforfrom£；15
to£；25。Therewerealsotwothousandwatchmenreceivingfrom81/2d。
upto2s。anight。ThesewerethetruesuccessorsofDogberry；ofteninfirmoragedpersonsappointedtokeepthemoutoftheworkhouse。Themanagementofthisdistractedforcethusdependeduponamiscellaneoussetofbodies；
thepaidmagistrates，theofficialsofthecity，thejusticesofthepeaceforMiddlesex，andtheseventyindependentparishes。
Thelawwasasdefectiveastheadministration。Colqulhounrepresentsthephilanthropicimpulseoftheday，andnotices35*thatin1787JosephIIhadabolishedcapitalpunishment。HischiefauthorityformoremercifulmethodsisBeccaria；anditisworthremarking，forreasonswhichwillappearhereafter，thathedoesnotinthisconnectionrefertoBentham，althoughhespeaksenthusiastically36*ofBentham’smodelprison，thePanopticon。
Colquhounshowshowstrangelytheseverityofthelawwascombinedwithitsextremecapriciousness。HequotesBacon37*forthestatementthatthelawwasa’heterogeneousmassconcoctedtoooftenonthespurofthemoment，’
andgivessufficientproofsofitstruth。Hedesires，forexample，alawtopunishreceiversofstolengoods，andsaysthattherewereexcellentlawsinexistence。Unfortunatelyonelawappliedexclusivelytothecaseofpewter-pots，andanotherexclusivelytothepreciousmetals；neithercouldbeusedasagainstreceiversofhorsesorbanknotes。38*Soamanindictedunderanactagainststealingfromshipsonnavigableriversescaped，becausethebargefromwhichhestolehappenedtobeaground。Gangscouldaffordtocorruptwitnessesortopayknavishlawyersskilledinapplyingthesevagariesoflegislation。Juriesalsodislikedconvictingwhenthepenaltyforcoiningsix-pencewasthesameasthepenaltyforkillingamother。Itfollowed，asheshowsbystatistics，thathalfthepersonscommittedfortrialescapedbypettychicaneryorcorruption，orthereluctanceofjuriestoconvictforcapitaloffences。Onlyaboutone-fifthofthecapitalsentenceswereexecuted；andmanywerepardonedonconditionofenlistingtoimprovethemoralsofthearmy。Thecriminals，whowereneitherhangednorallowedtoescape，weresenttoprisons，whichwereschoolsofvice。AftertheindependenceoftheAmericancolonies，thesystemoftransportationtoAustraliahadbegunin1787；buttheexpensewasenormous，andprisonerswerehuddledtogetherinthehulksatWoolwichandPortsmouth，whichhadbeenusedasatemporaryexpedient。Thencetheywereconstantlydischarged，toreturntotheiroldpractices。Aman，saysColquhoun，39*woulddeserveastatuewhoshouldcarryoutaplanforhelpingdischargedprisoners。Tomeettheseevils，Colquhounproposesvariousremedies，suchasametropolitanpolice，apublicprosecutor，orevenacodificationorrevisionoftheCriminalCode，whichheseesislikelytobedelayed。Healsosuggested，inapamphletof1799，akindofcharityorganisationsocietytopreventthewasteoffunds。Manyotherpamphletsofsimilartendenciesshowhisactivezealinpromotingvariousreforms。
ColquhounwasinclosecorrespondencewithBenthamfromtheyear1798，40*
andBenthamhelpedhimbydrawingtheThamesPoliceAct，passedin1800，togiveeffecttosomeofthesuggestionsintheTreatise。41*
AnothersetofabuseshasaspecialconnectionwithBentham’sactivity。
Benthamhadbeenledin1778toattendtotheprisonquestionbyreadingHoward’sbookonPrisons；andhereferstothe’venerablefriendwhohadlivedanapostleanddiedamartyr。’42*ThecareerofJohnHoward1726-1790
isfamiliar。ThesonofaLondontradesman，hehadinheritedanestateinBedfordshire。Thereheerectedmodelcottagesandvillageschools；and，onbecomingsheriffofthecountyin1773，wasledtoattendtoabusesintheprisons。Twoactsofparliamentwerepassedin1774toremedysomeoftheevilsexposed，andhepursuedtheinquiryathomeandabroad。HisresultsaregiveninhisStateofthePrisonsinEnglandandWales1779，fourthedition，1792，andhisAccountofthePrincipalLazarettosinEurope1789。
Theprisoners，hesays，hadlittlefood，sometimesapennyloafaday，andsometimesnothing；nowater，nofreshair，nosewers，andnobedding。Thestenchwasappalling，andgaolfeverkilledmorethandiedonthegallows。
Debtorsandfelons，men，womenandchildren，werehuddledtogether；oftenwithlunatics，whowereshownbythegaolersformoney。’Garnish’wasextorted；
thegaolerskeptdrinking-taps；gamblingflourished：andprisonerswereoftencruellyironed，andkeptforlongperiodsbeforetrial。AtHulltheassizeshadonlybeenheldonceinsevenyears，andafterwardsonceinthree。ItisacomforttofindthatthewholenumberofprisonersinEnglandandWalesamounted，in1780，toabout4400，1078ofwhomweredebtors，798felons，and917pettyoffenders。Anactpassedin1779providedfortheerectionoftwopenitentiaries。Howardwastobeasupervisor。Thefailuretocarryoutthisactled，asweshallsee，tooneofBentham’smostcharacteristicundertakings。Onepeculiaritymustbenoted。Howardfoundprisonsonthecontinentwherethetreatmentwasbadandtorturestilloccasionallypractised；
buthenowherefoundthingssobadasinEngland。InHollandtheprisonsweresoneatandcleanastomakeitdifficulttobelievethattheywereprisons：andtheywereusedasmodelsforthelegislationof1779。OnecauseofthisunenviabledistinctionofEnglishprisonshadbeenindicatedbyanearlierinvestigation。GeneralOglethorpe1696-1785hadbeenstartedinhisphilanthropiccareerbyobtainingacommitteeoftheHouseofCommonsin1729toinquireintothestateofthegaols。ThefoundationofthecolonyofGeorgiaasanoutletforthepopulationwasoneresultoftheinquiry。
Itled，inthefirstplace，however，toatrialofpersonsaccusedofatrociouscrueltiesattheFleetprison。43*Thetrialwasabortive。ItappearedinthecourseoftheproceedingsthattheFleetprisonwasa’freehold。’ApatentforrebuildingithadbeengrantedtoSirJeremyWhichcotunderCharlesII，andhadbeensoldtooneHiggins，whoresoldittootherpersonsfor£；5000。
Theproprietorsmadetheirinvestmentpaybycruelill-treatmentoftheprisoners，oppressingthepoorandlettingoffpartsoftheprisontodealersindrink。
ThiswasthegeneralplanintheprisonsexaminedbyHoward，andhelpstoaccountforthegrossabuses。Itisonemoreapplicationofthegeneralsystem。
Asthepatronwasownerofaliving，andtheofficerofhiscommission，thekeeperofaprisonwasownerofhisestablishment。Theparalysisofadministrationwhichprevailedthroughoutthecountrymadeitnaturaltofarmoutpauperstothemasterofaworkhouse，andprisonerstotheproprietorofagaol。
ThestateofprisonersmaybeinferrednotonlyfromHoward’sauthenticrecordbutfromthefictionsofFielding，SmollettandGoldsmith；andthelastechoesofthesamecomplaintsmaybefoundinPickwickandLittleDorrit。TheMarshalseadescribedinthelastwasalsoaproprietaryconcern。WeshallhereafterseehowBenthamproposedtotreattheevilsrevealedbyOglethorpeandHoward，III。EDUCATION
AnothertopictreatedbyColquhounmarkstheinitialstageofcontroversieswhichweresoontogrowwarm。ColquhounboastsofthenumberofcharitiesforwhichLondonwasalreadyconspicuous。Agrowingfacilityforformingassociationsofallkinds，political，religious，scientific，andcharitable，isanobviouscharacteristicofmodernprogress。Whereinearliertimesacollegeorahospitalhadtobeendowedbyafounderandinvestedbycharterwithcorporatepersonality，itisnownecessaryonlytocallameeting，formacommittee，andappealforsubscriptions。Societiesofvariouskindshadsprungupduringthecentury。Artists，menofscience，agriculturists，andmenofliterarytastes，hadfoundedinnumerableacademiesand’philosophicalinstitutes。’ThegreatLondonhospitals，dependentuponvoluntarysubscriptions，hadbeenfoundedduringthefirsthalfofthecentury。Colquhouncountstheannualrevenueofvariouscharitableinstitutionsat£；445，000，besideswhichtheendowmentsproduced£；150，000，andthepoor-rates£；255，000。44*