Thatsuggestsanotherinfluence。TheRationalistsoftheeighteenthcenturywerenevertiredofpraisingtheQuakers。TheQuakerswere，bytheiressentialprinciples，infavourofabsolutetoleration，andtheirattitudetowardsdogmawasnotdissimilar。’Rationalisation’and’Spiritualisation，areinsomedirectionssimilar。Thegeneralspreadofphilanthropicsentiment，whichfounditsformulaintheRightsofMan，fellinwiththeQuakerhatredofwarandslavery。VoltaireheartilyadmiresBarclay，theQuakerapologist。
　　Itis，therefore，notsurprisingtofindthenamesofthedeists，FranklinandPaine，associatedwithQuakersinthismovement。Franklinwasanearlypresidentofthenewassociation，andPainewroteanarticletosupporttheearlyagitation。53*PainehimselfwasaQuakerbybirth，whohaddroppedhisearlycreedwhileretainingarespectforitsadherents。Whentheagitationbeganitwasinfactgenerallyapprovedbyallexcepttheslave-traders。
　　SoundWhigdivines，WatsonandPaleyandParr；UnitarianssuchasPriestleyandGilbertWakefieldandWilliamSmith；andthegreatmethodist，JohnWesley，wereunitedonthispoint。FoxandBurkeandPittrivalledeachotherincondemningthesystem。Theactualdelaywascausedpartlybythestrengthofthecommercialinterestsinparliament，andpartlybythegrowthoftheanti-Jacobinsentiment。
　　Theattempttomonopolisethecreditofthemovementbyanyparticularsectisabsurd。Wilberforceandhisfriendsmightfairlyclaimthegloryofhavingbeenworthyrepresentativesofanewspiritofphilanthropy。butmostcertainlytheydidnotcreateororiginateit。Thegeneralgrowthofthatspiritthroughoutthecenturymustbeexplained，sofaras’explanation’
　　ispossible，bywidercauses。Itwas，asImustventuretoassume，aproductofcomplexsocialchangeswhichwerebringingclassesandnationsintoclosercontact，bindingthemtogetherbynewties，andbreakinguptheoldinstitutionswhichhadbeenformedunderobsoleteconditions。Thetruemovingforceswerethesamewhethertheserepresentativesannouncedthenewgospelofthe’rightsofman’；orappealedtothetraditionalrightsofEnglishmen；orralliedsupportersoftheoldordersofarasitstillprovidedthemostefficientmachineryforthepurpose。TherevivalofreligionunderWesleyandtheEvangelicalsmeantthedirectionofthestreamintoonechannel。TheparalyticconditionoftheChurchofEnglanddisqualifieditforappropriatingthenewenergy。
　　Themenwhodirectedthemovementsweremainlystimulatedbymoralindignationatthegrossabuses，andtheindolenceoftheestablishedpriesthoodnaturallygavethemananti-sacerdotalturn。TheysimplyacceptedtheoldProtestanttradition。Theytooknointerestintheintellectualquestionsinvolved。
　　Rationalism，accordingtothem，meantsimplyanattackuponthetraditionalsanctionsofmorality。anditscarcelyoccurredtothemtoaskforanyphilosophicalfoundationoftheircreed。Wilberforce’sbook，APracticalView，attainedanimmensepopularity，andischaracteristicoftheposition。WilberforceturnsovertheinfideltobeconfutedbyPaley，whomhetakestobeaconclusivereasoner。Forhimselfheiscontenttoshowwhatneededlittleproof，thattheso-calledChristiansofthedaycouldactasiftheyhadneverheardoftheNewTestament。TheEvangelicalmovementhadinshortnodistinctrelationtospeculativemovements。Ittooktheoldtraditionforgranted，anditneednotherebefurtherconsidered。
　　Oneotherremarkissuggestedbytheagitationagainsttheslave-trade。
　　Itsetaprecedentforagitationofakindafterwardsfamiliar。Thecommitteeappealedtothecountry，andgotuppetitions。SoundToriescomplainedofthemintheearlyslave-tradedebates，asattemptstodictatetoparliamentbydemocraticmethods。Politicalagitatorshadformedassociations，andfoundaconvenientinstrumentinthe’countymeetings，’whichseemstohavepossessedakindofindefinitelegalcharacter。54*Suchassociationsofcoursedependforthegreatpartoftheirinfluenceuponthepress。Thecirculationofliteraturewasonegreatobject。Paine’sRightsofManwasdistributedbytherevolutionaryparty，andHannahMorewrotepopulartractstopersuadethepoorthattheyhadnogrievances。Itissaidthattwomillionsofherlittletracts，’VillagePoliticsbyWillChip，’the’ShepherdofSalisburyPlain，’andsoforthwerecirculated。Thedemand，indeed，showedrathertheeagernessoftherichtogetthemreadthantheeagernessofthepoortoreadthem。TheyfailedtodestroyPaine’sinfluence，buttheyweresuccessfulenoughtoleadtothefoundationoftheReligiousTractSociety。Theattempttoinfluencethepoorbycheapliteratureshowsthattheseopinionswerebeginningtodemandconsideration。Cobbettandmanyothersweresoontousethenewweapon。Meanwhilethenewspaperscirculatedamongthehigher。rankswerepassingthroughanewphase，whichmustbenoted。Thegreatnewspapersweregainingpower。TheMorningChroniclewasstartedbyWoodfallin1769，theMorningPostandMorningHeraldbyDudleyBatein1772and1780，andtheTimesbyWalterin1788。Themoderneditorwastoappearduringthewar。
　　StoddartandBarnesoftheTimes，PerryandBlackoftheMorningChrOnicle，weretobecomeimportantpolitically。Therevolutionaryperiodmarksthetransitionfromtheold-fashionednewspaper，carriedonbyapublisherandanauthor，tothemodernnewspaper，whichrepresentsakindofseparateorganism，elaborately’differentiated’andworkedbyawholearmyofco-operatingeditors，correspondents，reporters，andcontributors。Finally，oneremarkmaybemade。
　　TheliteraryclassinEnglandwasnotgenerallyopposedtothegoverningclasses。ThetoneofJohnson’swholecirclewasconservative。Infact，sinceHarley’stime，governmenthadfelttheneedofsupportinthepress，andpoliticiansonbothsideshadtheirregularorgans。Theoppositionmightatanytimebecomethegovernment；andtheirsupportersinthepress，poormenwhowereonlytoodependent，hadnomotiveforgoingbeyondthedoctrinesoftheirprincipals。Theymightbeboughtbyopponents，ortheymightbefaithfultoapatron。Theydidnotformabandofoutcasts，whosehandwouldbeagainsteveryone。Thelibellawwassevereenough，buttherehadbeennolicensingsystemsincetheearlydaysofWilliamandMary。Amancouldpublishwhathechoseathisownperil。Whenthecurrentofpopularfeelingwasanti-revolutionary，governmentmightobtainaconviction，butevenintheworsttimestherewasachancethatjuriesmightberestive。Editorshadattimestogotoprison，buteventhenthepaperwasnotsuppressed。
　　Cobbett，forexample，continuedtopublishhisRegistrarduringanimprisonmentoftwoyears1810-12。Editorshadveryseriousanxieties，buttheycouldexpresswithfreedomanyopinionwhichhadthesupportofaparty。Englishlibertywassofararealitythataveryfreediscussionofthepoliticalproblemsofthedaywaspermittedandpractised。TheEnglishauthor，therefore，assuch，hadnotthebitternessofaFrenchmanofletters，unless，indeed，hehadthemisfortunetobeanuncompromisingrevolutionist。
　　V。THEFRENCHREVOLUTION
　　TheEnglishsocietywhichIhaveendeavouredtocharacterisewasnowtobethrownintothevortexoftherevolutionarywars。ThesurpassingdramaticinterestoftheFrenchRevolutionhastendedtoobscureourperceptionofthecontinuityofevenEnglishhistory。IthasbeeneasytoascribetothecontagionofFrenchexamplepoliticalmovementswhichwerealreadybeginninginEnglandandwhichweremodifiedratherthanmateriallyalteredbyourshareinthegreatEuropeanconvulsion。TheimpressionmadeuponEnglishmenbytheFrenchRevolutionis，however，inthehighestdegreecharacteristic。
　　Themostvehementsympathiesandantipathieswerearoused，andshowedatleastwhatprincipleswerecongenialtothevariousEnglishparties。Topraiseorblametherevolution，asifitcouldbecalledsimplygoodorbad，isforthehistorianasabsurdastopraiseorblameanearthquake。Itwassimplyinevitableundertheconditions。Wemay，ofcourse，takeitasanessentialstageinasocialevolution，whichifdescribedasprogressisthereforetobeblessed，orifasdegenerationmayprovokelamentation。Wemay，ifweplease，askwhethersuperiorstatesmanshipmighthaveattainedthegoodresultswithouttheviolentcatastrophes，orwhetherawiseandgoodmanwhocouldappreciatetherealpositionwouldhaveapprovedorcondemnedtheactualpolicy。Buttoanswersuchproblemswithanyconfidencewouldimplyaclaimtoaquasi-omniscience。Partisansatthetime，however，answeredthemwithouthesitation，andsawintheRevolutionthedawnofaneweraofreasonandjustice，ortheoutburstofthefiresofhell。Theirviewisatanyrateindicativeoftheirownposition。Theextremeopinionsneednoexposition。TheyarerepresentedbythecontroversybetweenBurkeandPaine。
　　Thegeneraldoctrineofthe’RightsofMen’——thatallmenarebynaturefreeandequal——coveredatleastthedoctrinethattheinequalityanddespotismoftheexistingorderwashateful，andpeoplewithatasteforabstractprinciplesacceptedthisshortcuttopoliticalwisdom。The’minor’premisebeingobviouslytrue，theytookthemajorforgranted。ToBurke，whoidealisedthetraditionalelementintheBritishConstitution，andsoattachedanexcessiveimportancetohistoricalcontinuity，thenewdoctrineseemedtoimplythebreakingupoftheveryfoundationsoforderandthepulverisationofsociety。BurkeandPainebothassumedtooeasilythatthedogmaswhichtheydefendedexpressedtherealandultimatebeliefs，andthatthebeliefwasthecause，nottheconsequence，ofthepoliticalcondition。Withouttouchinguponthelogicofeitherposition，ImaynoticehowtheproblempresenteditselftotheaverageEnglishpoliticianwhosepositionimpliedacceptanceoftraditionalcompromisesandwhoyetpridedhimselfonpossessingthelibertieswhichwerenowbeingclaimedbyFrenchmen。TheWhigcouldheartilysympathisewiththeFrenchRevolutionsolongasitappearedtobeanattempttoassimilateBritishprinciples。WhenFoxhailedthefalloftheBastilleasthegreatestandbesteventthathadeverhappened，hewasexpressingagenerousenthusiasmsharedbyalltheardentandenlightenedyouthofthetime。TheFrench，itseemed，wereabolishinganarbitrarydespotismandadoptingtheprinciplesofMagnaChartaandthe’HabeasCorpus’Act。Difficulties，however，alreadysuggestedthemselvestothetrueWhig。WouldtheFrench，asYoungaskedjustafterthesameevent，’copytheconstitutionofEngland，freedfromitsfaults，orattempt，fromtheory，toframesomethingabsolutelyspeculative’?55*
　　Onthatissuedependedthefutureofthecountry。Itwassoondecidedinthesenseopposedtoyoung’swishes。ThereignofterroralienatedtheaverageWhig。Butthoughtheargumentfromatrocitiesisthepopularone，theoppositionwasreallymorefundamental。Burkeputthecase，savagelyandcoarselyenough，inhis’LettertoanobleLord。’HowwouldthedukeofBedfordliketobetreatedastherevolutionistsweretreatingthenobilityinFrance?Thedukemightbeasincereloverofpoliticalliberty，buthecertainlywouldnotbepreparedtoapprovetheconfiscationofhisestates。ThearistocraticWhigs，dependentfortheirwholepropertyandforeveryprivilegewhichtheyprizeduponancienttraditionandprescription，couldnotreallybeinfavourofsweepingawaythewholecomplexsocialstructure，levellingWindsorCastleasBurkeputitinhisfamousmetaphor，andmakinga’Bedfordlevel’ofthewholecountry。TheWhigshadtodisavowanyapprovaloftheJacobins；Mackintosh，whohadgivenhisanswertoBurke’sdiatribes，metBurkehimselfonfriendlyterms9thJuly1797，andin1800tookanopportunityofpublicrecantation。
　　HeonlyexpressedthenaturalawakeningofthegenuineWhigtotheaspectsofthecasewhichhehadhithertoignored。Theeffectuponthemiddle-classWhigsis，however，moretomypurpose。itmaybeillustratedbythehistoryofJohnHorneTooke56*17361812，whoatthistimerepresentedwhatmaybecalledthehome-bredBritishradicalism。HewasthesonofaLondontradesman，whohaddistinguishedhimselfbyestablishing，andafterwardsdecliningtoenforce，certainlegalrightsagainstFrederickPrinceofWales。Theprincerecognisedthetradesman’sgenerositybymakinghisantagonistpurveyortohishousehold。Adebtofsomethousandpoundswasthusrunupbeforetheprince’sdeathwhichwasneverdischarged。Possiblytheson’shostilitytotheroyalfamilywasedgedbythiscircumstance。JohnHorne，forcedtotakeordersinordertoholdaliving，soonshowedhimselftohavebeenintendedbynatureforthelaw。HetookupthecauseofWilkesintheearlypartofthereign；defendedhimenergeticallyinlateryears；andin1769helpedtostartthe’SocietyforsupportingtheBillofRights。’HethenattackedWilkes，who，ashemaintained，misappliedforhisownprivateusethefundssubscribedforpublicpurposestothissociety；andsetuparival’ConstitutionalSociety。’in1775，asspokesmanofthisbody，hedenouncedthe’king’stroops’