for’inhumanlymurdering’theirfellow-subjectsatLexingtonforthesolecrimeof’preferringdeathtoslavery。’Hewasimprisonedforthelibel，andthusbecameamartyrtothecause。Whenthecountryassociationswereformedin1780toprotestagainsttheabusesrevealedbythewar，Hornebecameamemberofthe’SocietyforConstitutionalInformation，’ofwhichMajorCartwright——afterwardstherevered，butrathertiresome，patriarchoftheRadicals——wascalledthe’father。’HorneTookeashewasnownamed，bytheseandotherexhibitionsofboundlesspugnacity，becamealeaderamongthemiddle-classWhigs，whofoundtheirmainsupportamongLondoncitizens，suchasBeckford，TroutbeckandOliver；supportedtheminhislaterdays；
　　andaftertheAmericanwar，preferredPitt，asanadvocateofparliamentaryreform，toFox，thefavouriteofthearistocraticWhigs。HedenouncedtheFoxcoalitionministry，andinlateryearsopposedFoxatWestminster。The’SocietyforConstitutionalInformation’，wasstillextantintherevolutionaryperiod，andTooke，abluff，jovialcompanion，whohadbythistimegotridofhisclericalcharacter，oftentookthechairatthetavernswheretheymettotalksoundpoliticsovertheirport。Therevolutioninfusednewspiritintopolitics。InMarch179157*Tooke’ssocietypassedavoteofthankstoPaineforthefirstpartofhisRightsofMan。NextyearThomasHardy，aradicalshoemaker，starteda’CorrespondingSociety。’Otherssprangupthroughoutthecountry，especiallyinthemanufacturingtowns。58*ThesesocietiestookPainefortheiroracle，andcirculatedhiswritingsastheirmanifesto。TheycommunicatedoccasionallywithHorneTooke’ssociety，whichmoreorlesssympathisedwiththem。TheWhigsoftheupperspherestartedthe’FriendsofthePeople’inApril1792，inordertodirectthediscontentintosaferchannels。Grey，SheridanandErskineweremembers；Foxsympathisedbutdeclinedtojoin；Mackintoshwassecretary；andSirPhilipFrancisdrewuptheopeningaddress，citingtheauthorityofPittandBlackstone，anddeclaringthatthesocietywished’nottochangebuttorestore。’59*Itremonstratedcautiouslywiththeothersocieties，andonlyexcitedtheirdistrust。Grey，asitsrepresentative，madeamotionforparliamentaryreformwhichwasrejectedMay1793bytwohundredandeighty-twotoforty-one。
　　LatermotionsinMay1797andApril1800showedthat，forthepresent，parliamentaryreformwasoutofthequestion。MeanwhiletheEnglishJacobinsgotupa’convention’
　　whichmetatEdinburghattheendof1793。Theverynamewasalarming：theleadersweretriedandtransported；thecrueltyofthesentencesandtheseverityofthejudges，especiallyBraxfield，shockedsuchmenasParrandJeffrey，andunsuccessfulappealsformercyweremadeinparliament。TheHabeasCorpusActwassuspendedin1794：HorneTookeandHardywerebotharrestedandtriedforhightreasoninNovember。AnEnglishjuryfortunatelyshoweditselflesssubservientthantheScottish；thejudgewasscrupulouslyfair：andbothHardyandHorneTookewereacquitted。Thesocieties，however，thoughtheywereencouragedforatime，wereattackedbyseveremeasurespassedbyPittin1795。The’FriendsofthePeople’ceasedtoexist。TheseizureofthecommitteeoftheCorrespondingSocietiesin1798putanendtotheiractivity。Areportpresentedtoparliamentin179960*declaresthatthesocietieshadgonetodangerouslengths：theyhadcommunicatedwiththeFrenchrevolutionistsandwiththe’UnitedIrishmen’founded1791；
　　andsocietiesof’UnitedEnglishmen’and’UnitedScotsmen’hadhadsomeconcerninthemutiniesofthefleetin1797andintheIrishrebellionof1798。
　　Placesays，probablywithtruth，thatthedangerwasmuchexaggerated：butinanycase，anactforthesuppressionoftheCorrespondingSocietieswaspassedin1799，andputanendtothemovement。
　　Thissummaryissignificantofthestateofopinion，Thegenuineold-fashionedWhigdreadedrevolution，andguardedhimselfcarefullyagainstanyappearanceofcomplicity。Jacobinism，ontheotherhand，wasalwaysanexotic。SuchmenastheleadingNonconformistsPriestleyandPricewerefamiliarwiththespeculativemovementonthecontinent，andsympathisedwiththeenlightenment。
　　Youngmenofgenius，likeWordsworthandColeridge，imbibedthesamedoctrinesmoreorlessthoroughly，andtookGodwinfortheirEnglishrepresentative。
　　Thesamecreedwasacceptedbytheartisansinthegrowingtowns，fromwhomtheCorrespondingSocietiesdrewtheirrecruits。Buttherevolutionarysentimentwasnotsowidelyspreadasitsadherentshopedoritsenemiesfeared。TheBirminghammobof1791acted，withacertainunconscioushumour，onthesideofchurchandking。Theyhadperhapsaninstinctiveperceptionthatitwasanadvantagetoplunderonthesideoftheconstable。Infact，however，thegeneralfeelinginallclasseswasanti-Jacobin。Place，anexcellentwitness，himselfamemberoftheCorrespondingSocieties，declaresthattherepressivemeasuresweregenerallypopularevenamongtheworkmen。61*Theywerecertainlynotpenetratedwithrevolutionaryfervour。Haditbeenotherwise，therepressivemeasures，severeastheywere，wouldhavestimulatedratherthansuppressedthesocieties，and，insteadofsilencingtherevolutionists，haveprovokedarising。
　　AttheearlyperiodtheJacobinandthehome-bredRadicalmightcombineagainstgovernment。AmanifestooftheCorrespondingSocietiesbeginsbydeclaringthat’allmenarebynaturefreeandequalandindependentofeachother，’andarguesalsothatthesearethe’originalprinciplesofEnglishgovernment。’62*MagnaChartaisanearlyexpressionoftheDeclarationofRights，andthuspurereasonconfirmsBritishtradition。Theadoptionofacommonplatform，however，coveredaprofounddifferenceofsentiment。
　　HorneTookerepresentstheoldtypeofreformer。Hewasfullyresolvednottobecarriedawaybytheenthusiasmofhisallies。’Mycompanionsinastage，’
　　hesaidtoCartwright，’maybegoingtoWindsor：IwillgowiththemtoHounslow。
　　ButthereIwillgetout：nofurtherwillIgo，byGod！’63*WhenSheridansupportedavoteofsympathyfortheFrenchrevolutionists，TookeinsisteduponaddingariderdeclaringthecontentofEnglishmenwiththeirownconstitution。64*
　　Heoffendedsomeofhisalliesbyassertingthatthe’maintimbers’oftheconstitutionweresoundthoughthedry-rothadgotintothesuperstructure。
　　Hemaintained，accordingtoGodwin，65*thatthebestofallgovernmentshadbeenthatofEnglandunderGeorgeI。ThoughCartwrightsaidatthetrialthatHorneTookewastakento’havenoreligionwhatever，’hewas，accordingtoStephens，’agreatsticklerforthechurchofEngland’：andstoodupfortheHouseofLordsaswellasthechurchongroundsofutility。66*HealwaysridiculedPaineandthedoctrineofabstractrights，67*andtoldCartwrightthatthoughallmenhadanequalrighttoashareofproperty，theyhadnotarighttoanequalshare。HorneTooke’sRadicalismIusethewordbyanticipation
　　wasthatofthesturdytradesman。Heopposedthegovernmentbecausehehatedwar，taxationandsinecures。Hearguedagainstuniversalsuffragewithequalpertinacity。Acomfortableoldgentleman，withagoodcellarofMadeira，andproudofhiswall-fruitinawell-tilledgarden，hadnodesiretoseeGeorgeIIIattheguillotine，andstilllesstoseeamobsupremeinLombardStreetorbanknotessupersededbyassignats。Hemightbejealousofthegreatnobles，buthedreadedmob-rule。Hecoulddenounceabuses，buthecouldnotdesireanarchy。HeissaidtohaveretorteduponsomeonewhohadboastedthatEnglishcourtsofjusticewereopentoallclasses：’SoistheLondontavern——toallwhocanpay。’68*ThatisinthespiritofBentham；andyetBenthamcomplainsthatHorneTooke’sdisciple，Burdett，believedinthecommonlaw，andreveredtheauthorityofCoke。69*Inbrief，thecreedofHorneTookemeant’liberty’foundedupontradition。Ishallpresentlynoticetheconsistencyofthiswithwhatmaybecalledhisphilosophy。Meanwhileitwasonlynaturalthatradicalsofthisvarietyshouldretirefromactivepolitics，havingsufficientlyburnttheirfingersbyflirtationwiththemorethorough-goingparty。Howtheycametolifeagainwillappearhereafter。
　　HorneTookehimselftookwarningfromhisnarrowescape。HestayedquietlyinhishouseatWimbledon。70*Therehedividedhistimebetweenhisbooksandhisgarden，andreceivedhisfriendstoSundaydinners。Bentham，Mackintosh，Coleridge，andGodwinwereamonghisvisitors。Coleridgecallshima’keenironman，’andreportsthathemadeabuttofGodwinashehaddoneofPaine。71*
　　PorsonandBoswellencounteredhimindrinkingmatchesandwerebothleftunderthetable。72*Thehousewasthusasmallcentreofintellectuallife，thoughthesymposiawerenotaltogethersuchasbecamephilosophers。HorneTookewasakeenandshrewddisputant，wellabletoimpressweakernatures。
　　Hisneighbour，SirFrancisBurdett，becamehispoliticaldisciple，andinlateryearswasacceptedastheradicalleader。TookediedatWimbledon18thMarch1812。
　　VI。INDIVIDUALISM
　　ThegeneraltendencieswhichIhavesofartriedtoindicatewillhavetobefrequentlynoticedinthecourseofthefollowingrages。Onepointmaybeemphasisedbeforeproceeding：amaincharacteristicofthewholesocialandpoliticalorderiswhatisnowcalledits’individualism。’Thatphraseisgenerallysupposedtoconveysomecensure。Itmayconnote，however，someofthemostessentialvirtuesthataracecanpossess。Energy，self-reliance，andindependence，astrongconvictionthataman’sfateshoulddependuponhisowncharacterandconduct，arequalitieswithoutwhichnonationcanbegreat。Theyaretheconditionsofitsvitalpower。TheyweremanifestedinahighdegreebytheEnglishmenoftheeighteenthcentury。Howfartheywereduetotheinheritedqualitiesoftherace，tothepoliticalorsocialhistory，ortoexternalcircumstances，Ineednotask。Theywerethequalitieswhichhadespeciallyimpressedforeignobservers。Thefierce，proud，intractableBritonwaselbowinghiswaytoahighplaceintheworld，andshowingavigournotalwaysamiable，butdestinedtobringhimsuccessfullythroughtremendousstruggles。Intheearlierpartofthecentury，VoltaireandFrenchphilosophersadmiredEnglishfreedomofthoughtandfreespeech，evenwhenitledtoeccentricityandbrutalityofmanners，andtobarbarisminmattersoftaste。Englishmen，consciousandproudoftheir’liberty，’werethemodelsofallwhodesiredlibertyforthemselves。Liberty，astheyunderstoodit，involved，amongotherthings，anassaultupontheoldrestrictivesystem，whichateveryturnhamperedtherisingindustrialenergy。Thisisthesenseinwhich’individualism，’
　　orthegospelaccordingtoAdamSmithlaissezfaire，andsoforthhasbeenspeciallydenouncedinrecenttimes。Withoutaskingatpresenthowfarsuchattacksarejustifiable，Imustbecontenttoassumethattheoldrestrictivesystemwasinitsactualformmischievous，guidedbyentirelyfalsetheories，andthegreatbarriertothedevelopmentofindustry。Thesamespiritappearedinpurelypoliticalquestions。’Liberty，’asisoftenremarked，maybeinterpretedintwoways，notnecessarilyconsistentwitheachother。itmeanssometimessimplythediminutionofthesphereoflawandthepoweroflegislators，or，again，thetransferencetosubjectsofthepoweroflegislating，and，therefore，notlesscontrol，butcontrolbyselfmadelawsalone。TheEnglishman，whowasinpresenceofnocentralisedadministrativepower，whoregardedtheGovernmentratherasreceivingRowerfromindividualsthanasdelegatingtheRowerofacentralbody，tooklibertymainlyinthesenseofrestrictinglaw。Governmentingeneralwasanuisance，thoughanecessity；andproperlyemployedonlyinmediatingbetweenconflictinginterests，andrestrainingtheviolenceofindividualsforcedintocontactbyoutwardcircumstances。