andareconvincedthattheBritishConstitutionrepresentsanunsurpassablethoughunfortunatelyanidealorderofthings，whichmusthaveexistedatsomeindefiniteperiod。Chathaminoneofhismostfamousspeeches，appeals，forexample，tothe’ironbarons’whoresistedKingJohn，andcontraststhemwiththesilkencourtierswhichnowcompeteforplaceandpensions。Thepoliticalreformersofthetime，likereligiousreformersinmosttimes，conceiveofthemselvesonlyasdemandingtherestorationofthesystemtoitsoriginalpurity，notasdemandingitsabrogation。Inotherwords，theyproposetoremedyabusesbutdonotasyetevencontemplateareallyrevolutionarychange。
　　Wilkeswasnota’Wilkite，’norwasanyofhisparty，ifWilkitemeantanythinglikeJacobin。
　　II。TheRulingClassThus，howeveranomaloustheconstitutionofparliament，therewasnothoughtofanyfar-reachingrevolutionThegreatmassofthepopulationwastooignorant，tooscatteredandtoopoortohaveanyrealpoliticalopinions。Solongascertainprejudiceswerenotaroused，itwascontenttoleavethemanagementofthestatetothedominantclass，whichalonewasintelligentenoughtotakeaninterestinpublicaffairsandstrongenoughtomakeitsinterestfelt。Thisclassconsistedinthefirstplaceofthegreatlandedinterest。
　　WhenLordNorthopposedPitt’sreformin1785hesaid4*thattheConstitutionwas’theworkofinfinitewisdom……themostbeautifulfabricthathadeverexistedsincethebeginningoftime。’Headdedthat’thebulkandweight’
　　ofthehouseoughttobein’thehandsofthecountry-gentlemen，thebestandmostrespectableobjectsoftheconfidenceofthepeople。’Thespeech，thoughintendedtopleaseanaudienceofcountry-gentlemen，representedagenuinebelief。5*Thecountry-gentlemenformedtheclasstowhichnotonlytheconstitutionallawsbuttheprevailingsentimentofthecountrygavetheleadinpoliticsasinthewholesocialsystem。EvenreformersproposedtoimprovetheHouseofCommonschieflybyincreasingthenumberofcounty-members，andacounty-memberwasalmostnecessarilyacountry-gentlemanofanexaltedkind。Althoughthecountry-gentlemanwasveryfarfromhavingallthingshisownway，hisidealsandprejudiceswereinagreatdegreethemouldtowhichtheotherpoliticallyimportantclassconformed。Therewasindeedagrowingjealousybetweenthelandholdersandthe’monied-men。’Bolingbrokehadexpressedthisdistrustatanearlierpartofthecentury。Butthetruerepresentativeoftheperiodwashissuccessfulrival，Walpole，athoroughcountry-gentlemanwhohadlearnedtounderstandthemysteriesoffinanceandacquiredtheconfidenceofthecity。ThegreatmerchantsofLondonandtherisingmanufacturersinthecountrywererapidlygrowinginwealthandinfluence。Themonied-menrepresentedthemostactive，energetic，andgrowingpartofthebodypolitic。Theirinterestsdeterminedthedirectionofthenationalpolicy。ThegreatwarsofthecenturywereundertakenintheinterestsofBritishtrade。TheextensionoftheempireinIndiawascarriedonthroughagreatcommercialcompany。Thegrowthofcommercesupportedthesea-powerwhichwasthemainfactorinthedevelopmentoftheempire。Thenewindustrialorganisationwhichwasarisingwasinlateryearstorepresentaclassdistinctlyopposedtotheoldaristocraticorder。Atpresentitwasinacomparativelysubordinateposition。Thesquirewasinterestedinthelandandthechurch；
　　themerchantthoughtmoreofcommerceandwasapttobeadissenter。Butthemerchant，inspiteofsomelittlejealousies，admittedtheclaimsofthecountry-gentlemantobehissocialsuperiorandpoliticalleader。Hishighestambitionwastobehimselfadmittedtotheclassortosecuretheadmissionofhisfamily。AshebecamerichheboughtasolidmansionatClaphamorWimbledon，and，ifhemadeafortune，mightbecomelordofmanorsinthecountry。Hecouldnotasyetaspiretobecomehimselfapeer，buthemightbetheancestorofpeers。ThesonofJosiahChild，thegreatmerchantoftheseventeenthcentury，becameEarlTylney，andbuiltatWansteadoneofthenoblestmansionsinEngland。HiscontemporarySirFrancisChild，LordMayor，andafounderoftheBankofEngland，builtOsterleyHouse，andwasancestoroftheearlsofJerseyandWestmoreland。ThedaughterofSirJohnBarnard，thetypicalmerchantofWalpole’stime，marriedthesecondLordPalmerston。Beckford，thefamousLordMayorofChatham’sday，wasfatheroftheauthorofVatheh，whomarriedanearl’sdaughterandbecamethefatherofaduchess。TheBarings，descendantsofaGermanpastor，settledinEnglandearlyinthecenturyandbecamecountry-gentlemen，baronets，andpeers。Cobbett，whosawthemrise，reviledthestockjobberswhowerebuyingouttheoldfamilies。
　　Buttheprocesshadbegunlongbeforehisdays，andmeantthattheheadsofthenewindustrialsystemwerebeingabsorbedintotheclassofterritorialmagnates。Thatclassrepresentedtheframeworkuponwhichbothpoliticalandsocialpowerwasmoulded。
　　Thisimpliesanessentialcharacteristicofthetime。AfamiliartopicoftheadmirersoftheBritishConstitutionwastheabsenceofthesharplinesofdemarcationbetweenclassesandoftheexclusivearistocraticprivilegeswhich，inFrance，provokedtherevolution。InEnglandtherulingclasswasnota’survival’；ithadnotretainedprivilegeswithoutdischargingcorrespondingfunctions。Theessenceof’self-government，’saysitsmostlearnedcommentator，6*
　　istheorganicconnection’betweenStateandsociety。’OntheContinent，thatis，powerswereintrustedtoacentralisedadministrativeandjudicialhierarchy，whichinEnglandwerelefttotheclassindependentlystrongbyitssocialposition。Thelandholderwaspowerfulasaproductofthewholesystemofindustrialandagriculturaldevelopment；andhewasboundinreturntoperformarduousandcomplicatedduties。Howfarheperformedthemwellisanotherquestion。Atleast，hedidwhateverwasdoneinthewayofgoverning，andthereforedidnotsinkintoamereexcrescenceorsuperfluity。ImusttrytopointoutcertainresultswhichhadamaterialeffectuponEnglishopinioningeneraland，inparticular，upontheUtilitarians。
　　III。LegislationandAdministrationThecountry-gentlemenformedthebulkofthelawmakingbody，andthelawsgavethefirstpointofassaultoftheUtilitarianmovement。OneexplanationissuggestedbyaphraseattributedtoSirJosiahChild。7*Thelaws，hesaid，wereaheapofnonsense，compiledbyafewignorantcountry-gentlemen，whohardlyknewhowtomakegoodlawsforthegovernmentoftheirownfamilies，muchlessfortheregulationofcompaniesandforeigncommerce。Hemeantthattheparliamentarylegislationofthecenturywastheworkofamateurs，notofspecialists；ofanassemblyofmenmoreinterestedinimmediatequestionsofpolicyorpersonalintriguethaningeneralprinciples，andnotofsuchacentralisedbodyaswouldsetavalueuponsymmetryandscientificprecision。
　　Thecountry-gentlemanhadstrongprejudicesandenoughcommonsensetorecognisehisownignorance。Theproductofatraditionalorder，heclungtotraditions，andregardedtheoldmaximsassacredbecausenoobviousreasoncouldbeassignedforthem。Hewassuspiciousofabstracttheories，anditdidnotevenoccurtohimthatanysuchprocessascodificationorradicalalterationofthelawswasconceivable。ForthelawitselfhehadtheprofoundvenerationwhichisexpressedbyBlackstone。Itrepresentedthe’wisdomofourancestors’；
　　thesystemoffirstprinciples，Onwhichthewholeorderofthingsreposed，andwhichmustberegardedasanembodimentofrightreason。Thecommonlawwasatradition，notmadebyexpresslegislation，butsomehowexistingapartfromanydefiniteembodiment，andrevealedtocertainlearnedhierophants。
　　Anychanges，requiredbythegrowthofnewsocialconditions，hadtobemadeunderpretenceofapplyingtheoldrulessupposedtobealreadyinexistence。
　　Thusgrewupthesystemof’judge-madelaw，’whichwastobecomeaspecialobjectofthedenunciationsofBentham。Childhadnoticedtheincompetenceofthecountry-gentlementounderstandtheregulationofcommercialaffairs。
　　Thegapwasbeingfilledup，withoutexpresslegislation，byjudicialinterpretationsofMansfieldandhisfellows。This，indeed，marksacharacteristicofthewholesystem。’Ourconstitution，’saysProfessorDicey，8*’isajudge-madeconstitution，anditbearsonitsfaceallthefeatures，goodandbad，ofjudge-madelaw。’Thelawoflandedproperty，meanwhile，wasofvitalandimmediateinteresttothecountry-gentleman。But，feelinghisownincompetence，hehadcalledintheaidoftheexpert。Thelawhadbeendevelopedinmedievaltimes，andboreinallitsdetailsthemarksofthelongseriesofstrugglesbetweenkingandnoblesandparliaments。Oneresulthadbeentheelaborateseriesoflegalfictionsworkedoutintheconflictbetweenprivateinterestsandpublicpolicy，bywhichlawyershadbeenabletoadapttherulesfittedforanancientstateofsocietytoanotherinwhichtheveryfundamentalconceptionswerealtered。Amysterioussystemhadthusgrownup，whichdeterredanybutthemostresolutestudents。OfFearne’sessayupon’Contingentremainders’
　　publishedin1772itwassaidthatnowork’inanybranchofsciencecouldaffordamorebeautifulinstanceofanalysis。’Fearnehadshowntheacutenessof’aNewtonoraPascal。’Othercriticsdisputethisproposition；butinanycasethelawwassoperplexingthatitcouldonlybefullyunderstoodbyonewhounitedantiquarianknowledgetothesubtletyofagreatlogician。
　　The’vastandintricatemachine，’asBlackstonecallsit，’ofavoluminousfamilysettlement’requiredforitsexplanationthedialecticalskillofanaccomplishedschoolman。Thepoorcountry-gentlemancouldnotunderstandthetermsonwhichheheldhisownestatewithoutcallinginanexpertequaltosuchatask。Themanwhohasacquiredskillsoessentialtohisemployer’sinterestsisnotlikelytoundervalueitortobeoveranxioustosimplifythelabyrinthinwhichheshoneasacompetentguide。
　　Thelawyerswhoplayedsoimportantapartbytheirfamiliaritywiththemysteriesofcommerciallawandlandedproperty，naturallyenjoyedtherespectoftheirclients，andwererewardedbyadoptionintotheclass。TheEnglishbarristeraspiredtosuccessbyhimselftakingpartinpoliticsandlegislation。
　　Theonlypathtothehighestpositionsreallyopentoamanofability，notconnectedbybloodwiththegreatfamilies，wasthepathwhichledtothewoolsackortothejudge’sbench。Agreatmerchantmightbethefatherorfather-in-lawofpeers；asuccessfulsoldierorsailormighthimselfbecomeapeer，butgenerallyhebeganlifeasamemberoftherulingclasses，andhispromotionwasaffectedbyparliamentaryinfluence。ButasuccessfullawyermightfighthiswayfromahumblepositiontotheHouseofLords。Thurlow，sonofacountry-gentleman；Dunning，sonofacountryattorney；Ellenborough，sonofabishopanddefendantofalonglineofNorth-country’statesmen’；
　　Kenyon，sonofafarmer；Eldon，sonofaNewcastlecoalmerchant，representtheaveragecareerofasuccessfulbarrister。Someofthemrosetobemenofpoliticalimportance，andThurlowandEldonhadtheadvantageofkeepingGeorgeIII’sconscience——anunrulyfacultywhichhadanunfortunatelystronginfluenceuponaffairs。Theleadersofthelegalprofession，therefore，andthosewhohopedtobeleaders，sharedtheprejudices，tookapartinthestruggles，andwererewardedbythehonoursofthedominantclass。
　　Thecriminallawbecameamaintopicofreformers。There，aselsewhere，wehaveastrikingexampleoftraditionalmodesofthoughtsurvivingwithsingularpersistence。Theroughclassificationofcrimesintofelonyandmisdemeanour，andthestrangetechnicalrulesabout’benefitofclergy’datingbacktothestrugglesofHenryIIandBecket，remainedlikeultimatecategoriesofthought。Whenthegrowthofsocialconditionsledtonewtemptationsortheappearanceofanewcriminalclass，andparticularvarietiesofcrimebecameconspicuous，theonlyremedywastodeclarethatsomeoffenceshouldbe’felonywithoutbenefitofclergy，’andthereforepunishablebydeath。