butinordertoansweritwerequireawholelogicalandpsychologicalapparatus。
　　Benthamshowsthisapparatusatwork，butdoesnotexpounditsorigininanyseparatetreatise。Enoughinformation，however，isgivenastohismethodinthecuriouscollectionofthefragmentsconnectedwiththeChrestomathia。
　　Alogicalmethoduponwhichheconstantlyinsistedisthatof’bipartition，’16*
　　calledalsothe’dichotomous’or’bifurcate’method，andexemplifiedbythestalled’PorphyrianTree。’Theprincipleis，ofcourse，simple。Takeanygenus：divideitintotwoclasses，oneofwhichhasandtheotherhasnotacertainmark。Thetwoclassesmustbemutuallyexclusiveandtogetherexhaustive。
　　Repeattheoperationuponeachoftheclassesandcontinuetheprocessaslongasdesired。17*Ateverystepyouthushaveacompleteenumerationofallthespecies，varieties，andsoon，eachofwhichexcludesalltheothers。Nomerelogic，indeed，cansecuretheaccuracyandstilllesstheutilityoftheprocedure。Thedifferencesmaybeinthemselvesambiguousorirrelevant。IfIclassifyplantsas’trees’and’nottrees，’thelogicalformissatisfied：butIhavestilltoaskwhether’tree’conveysadeterminatemeaning，andwhetherthedistinctioncorrespondstoadifferenceofanyimportance。
　　Aperfectclassification，however，couldalwaysbestatedinthisform。Eachspecies，thatis，canbemarkedbythepresenceorabsenceofagivendifference，whetherwearedealingwithclassesofplantsoractions：andBenthamaimsatthatconsummationthoughheadmitsthatcenturiesmayberequiredfortheconstructionofanaccurateclassificationinethicalspeculations。18*
　　Heexaggeratestheefficiencyofhismethod，andoverlooksthetendencyoftacitassumptionstosmugglethemselvesintowhataffectstobeamereenumerationofclasses。Butinanycase，noonecouldlabourmoreindustriouslytogeteveryobjectofhisthoughtarrangedandlabelledandputintotherightpigeon-holeofhismentalmuseum。Tocodify19*istoclassify，andBenthammightbedefinedasacodifyinganimal。
　　ThingsthuspresentthemselvestoBentham’smindasalreadypreparedtofitintopigeon-holes。Thisisacharacteristicpoint，anditappearsinwhatwemustcallhismetaphysicalsystem。’Metaphysics，’indeed，accordingtohim，issimply’asprig，’andthatasmallone，ofthe’branchtermedLogic。’20*Itismerelytheexplanationofcertaingeneraltermssuchas’existence，’’necessity，’andsoforth。21*Underthiswouldapparentlyfalltheexplanationof’reality’whichleadstoadoctrineuponwhichheofteninsists，andwhichismostimplicitlygiveninthefragmentcalledOntology。Hetheredistinguishes’real’from’fictitiousentities，’adistinctionwhich，ashetellsus，22*hefirstlearnedfromd’Alembert’sphraseÊ；tresfictifs，andwhichheappliesinhisMoralsandLegislation。’Realentities，’
　　accordingtohim，23*are’individualperceptions，’’impressions，’and’ideas。’
　　Inthis，ofcourse，heisfollowingHume，thoughheappliestheJohnsonianargumenttoBerkeley’simmaterialism。24*A’fictitiousentity’isanamewhichdoesnot’raiseupinthemindanycorrespondentimages。’25*Suchnamesowetheirexistencetothenecessitiesoflanguage。Withoutemployingsuchfictions，however，’thelanguageofmancouldnothaverisenabovethelanguageofbrutes’；26*andheemphaticallydistinguishesthemfrom’unreal’
　　or’fabulousentities。’A’fictitiousentity’isnota’nonentity。’27*
　　HeincludesamongsuchentitiesallAristotle’s’predicaments’exceptthefirst：’substance。’28*Quantity，quality，relation，time，placeareall’physicalfictitiousentities。’Thisisapparentlyequivalenttosayingthattheonly’physicalentities’areconcretethings——sticks，stones，bodies，andsoforth——the’reality’ofwhichhetakesforgrantedintheordinarycommon-sensemeaning。Itisalsoperfectlytruethatthingsarereallyrelated，havequantityandquality，andareintimeandspace。Butwecannotreallyconceivethequalityorrelationapartfromtheconcretethingssoqualifiedandrelated。Weareforcedbylanguagetousesubstantiveswhichintheirnaturehaveonlythesenseofadjectives。Hedoesnotsupposethatabodyisnotreallysquareorround；buthethinksitafictiontospeakofsquarenessorroundnessorspaceingeneralassomethingexistingapartfrommatterand，insomesense，alongsideofmatter。
　　Thisdoctrine，whichbringsuswithinsightofmetaphysicalproblemsbeyondourimmediatepurpose，becomesimportanttohismoralspeculation。Hisspecialexampleofa’fictitiousentity’inpoliticsis’obligation。’29*Obligations，rights，andsimilarwordsare’fictitiousentities。’Obligationinparticularimpliesametaphor。Thestatementthatamanis’obliged’toperformanactmeanssimplythathewillsufferpainifhedoesnotperformit。Theuseofthewordobligation，asanounsubstantive，introducesthe’fictitiousentity’whichrepresentsnothingreallyseparablefromthepainorpleasure。
　　Here，therefore，wehavethegroundofthedoctrinealreadynoticed。’Painsandpleasures’arereal。30*’Theirexistence，’hesays，31*’ismatterofuniversalandconstantexperience。’Butothervariousnamesreferringtothese：emotion，inclination，vice，virtue，etc。，areonly’psychologicalentities。’’Takeawaypleasuresandpains，notonlyhappinessbutjusticeanddutyandobligationandvirtue——allofwhichhavebeensoelaboratelyhelduptoviewasindependentofthem——aresomanyemptysounds。’32*
　　Theultimatefacts，then，arepainsandpleasures。Theyarethesubstantivesofwhichtheseotherwordsareproperlytheadjectives。Apainorapleasuremayexistbyitself，thatiswithoutbeingvirtuousorvicious：butvirtueandvicecanonlyexistinsofaraspainandpleasureexists。
　　Thisanalysisof’obligation’isacharacteristicdoctrineoftheUtilitarianschool。Weareunderan’obligation’sofarasweareaffectedbya’sanction。’
　　ItappearedtoBenthamsoobviousastoneednodemonstration，onlyanexpositionoftheemptinessofanyverbalcontradiction。Suchmetaphysicalbasisasheneededissimplytheattempttoexpressthecorrespondingconceptionofrealitywhich，inhisopinion，onlyrequirestobeexpressedtocarryconviction。
　　II。SPRINGSOFACTION
　　Ourpathisnowclear。Painsandpleasuresgiveuswhatmathematicianscallthe’independentvariable。’OurunitsareinBentham’sphrase’lots’
　　ofpainorpleasure。Wehavetointerpretallthefactsintermsofpainorpleasure，andweshallhavethematerialsforwhathassincebeencalleda’felicificcalculus。’Toconstructthiswithaviewtolegislationishisimmediatepurpose。Thetheorywillfallintotwoparts：the’pathological，’
　　oranaccountofallthepainsandpleasureswhicharetheprimarydata；
　　andthe’dynamical，’oranaccountofthevariousmodesofconductdeterminedbyexpectationsofpainandpleasure。Thisgivesthetheoryof’springsofaction，’consideredinthemselves，andof’motives，’thatis，ofthespringsasinfluencingconduct。33*The’pathology’contains，inthefirstplace，adiscussionofthemeasureofpainandpleasureingeneral；secondly，adiscussionofthevariousspeciesofpainandpleasure；andthirdly，adiscussionofthevaryingsensibilitiesofdifferentindividualstopainandpleasure。34*
　　Thusunderthefirsthead，wearetoldthatthevalueofapleasure，consideredbyitself，dependsuponitsintensity，duration，certainty，andpropinquity；
　　and，consideredwithregardtomodesofobtainingit，uponitsfecundityortendencytoproduceotherpainsandpleasuresanditspurityorfreedomfromadmixtureofotherpainsandpleasures。Thepainorpleasureisthusregardedasanentitywhichiscapableofbeinginsomesenseweighedandmeasured。35*Thenextstepistoclassifypainsandpleasures，whichthoughcommensurableaspsychologicalforces，haveobviouslyverydifferentqualities。
　　Benthamgivestheresultofhisclassificationwithouttheanalysisuponwhichitdepends。Heassuresusthathehasobtainedan’exhaustive’listof’simplepleasures。’Itmustbeconfessedthatthelistdoesnotcommenditselfeitherasexhaustiveorascomposedof’simplepleasures。’Hedoesnotexplaintheprincipleofhisanalysisbecausehesays，itwasof’toometaphysicalacast，’36*buthethoughtitsoimportantthathepublishedit，editedwithconsiderablemodificationsbyJamesMill，in1817，asaTableoftheSpringsofAction。37*
　　J。S。MillremarksthatthistableshouldbestudiedbyanyonewhowouldunderstandBentham’sphilosophy。Suchastudywouldsuggestsomeunfavourableconclusions。Benthamseemstohavemadeouthistablewithouttheslightestreferencetoanypreviouspsychologist。Itissimplyconstructedtomeettherequirementsofhislegislativetheories。Aspsychologyitwouldbeclearlyabsurd，especiallyiftakenasgivingtheelementaryor’simple’feelings。
　　Noonecansuppose，forexample，thatthepleasuresof’wealth’or’power’
　　are’simple’pleasures。Theclassesthereforearenotreallydistinct，andtheyareasfarfrombeingexhaustive。Allthatcanbesaidforthelististhatitgivesasufficientlylongenumerationtocallattentionfromhisownpointofviewtomostoftheordinarypleasuresandpains；andcontains。
　　asmuchpsychologyashecouldreallyturntoaccountforhispurpose。
　　Theomissionswithwhichhisgreatestdisciplechargeshimarecertainlysignificant。Wefind，saysMill，noreferenceto’Conscience，’’Principle，’
　　’MoralRectitude，’or’MoralDuty’amongthe’springsofaction，’unlessamongthesynonymsofa’loveofreputation，’orinsofaras’Conscience’
　　and’Principle’aresometimessynonymouswiththe’religious’motiveorthemotiveof’sympathy。’Sothesenseof’honour，’theloveofbeauty，andoforder，ofpowerexceptinthenarrowsenseofpoweroverourfellowsandofactioningeneralareallomitted。WemayconjecturewhatreplyBenthamwouldhavemadetothiscriticism。TheomissionoftheloveofbeautyandaestheticpleasuresmaysurpriseuswhenwerememberthatBenthamlovedmusic，ifhecarednothingforpoetry。Butheapparentlyregardedtheseas’complexpleasures，’38*andthereforenotadmissibleintohistable，ifitbeunderstoodasananalysisintothesimplepleasuresalone。Thepleasuresofactionaredeliberatelyomitted，forBenthampointedlygivesthe’pains’oflabourasaclasswithoutcorrespondingpleasure；andthis，thoughindicative，Ithink，ofaveryseriouserror，ischaracteristicratherofhismethodofanalysisthanofhisrealestimateofpleasure。NobodycouldhavefoundmorepleasurethanBenthaminintellectuallabour，butheseparatedthepleasurefromthelabour。Hethereforethought’labour，’assuch，apureevil，andclassifiedthepleasureasapleasureof’curiosity。’Butthemaincriticismismoreremarkable。MillcertainlyheldhimselftobeasoundUtilitarian；andyetheseemstobecondemningBenthamforconsistentUtilitarianism。Bentham，byadmittingthe’conscience’intohissimplespringsofaction，wouldhavefallenintotheverycirclefromwhichhewasstrugglingtoemerge。If，infact，thepleasuresofconsciencearesimplepleasures，wehavetheobjectionable’moralsense’intrudedasanultimatefactorofhumannature。Togetridofthat’fictitiousentity’ispreciselyBentham’saim。Themoraljudgmentistobepreciselyequivalenttothejudgment：’thisorthatkindofconductincreasesordiminishesthesumofhumanpainsorpleasures。’Onceallowthatamongthepainsandpleasuresthemselvesisanultimateconscience