Rousseau：SocialContract：BookIBOOKIIMEANtoinquireif，inthecivilorder，therecanbeanysureandlegitimateruleofadministration，menbeingtakenastheyareandlawsastheymightbe。InthisinquiryIshallendeavouralwaystounitewhatrightsanctionswithwhatisprescribedbyinterest，inorderthatjusticeandutilitymayinnocasebedivided。
Ienteruponmytaskwithoutprovingtheimportanceofthesubject。
IshallbeaskedifIamaprinceoralegislator，towriteonpolitics。
IanswerthatIamneither，andthatiswhyIdoso。IfIwereaprinceoralegislator，Ishouldnotwastetimeinsayingwhatwantsdoing;I
shoulddoit，orholdmypeace。
AsIwasbornacitizenofafreeState，andamemberoftheSovereign，Ifeelthat，howeverfeebletheinfluencemyvoicecanhaveonpublicaffairs，therightofvotingonthemmakesitmydutytostudythem：andIamhappy，whenIreflectupongovernments，tofindmyinquiriesalwaysfurnishmewithnewreasonsforlovingthatofmyowncountry。1。SUBJECTOFTHEFIRSTBOOKMANisbornfree;andeverywhereheisinchains。Onethinkshimselfthemasterofothers，andstillremainsagreaterslavethanthey。Howdidthischangecomeabout？Idonotknow。
Whatcanmakeitlegitimate？ThatquestionIthinkIcananswer。
IfItookintoaccountonlyforce，andtheeffectsderivedfromit，Ishouldsay："Aslongasapeopleiscompelledtoobey，andobeys，itdoeswell;assoonasitcanshakeofftheyoke，andshakesitoff，itdoesstillbetter;for，regainingitslibertybythesamerightastookitaway，eitheritisjustifiedinresumingit，ortherewasnojustificationforthosewhotookitaway。"Butthesocialorderisasacredrightwhichisthebasisofallotherrights。Nevertheless，thisrightdoesnotcomefromnature，andmustthereforebefoundedonconventions。Beforecomingtothat，IhavetoprovewhatIhavejustasserted。2。THEFIRSTSOCIETIESTHEmostancientofallsocieties，andtheonlyonethatisnatural，isthefamily：andevensothechildrenremainattachedtothefatheronlysolongastheyneedhimfortheirpreservation。
Assoonasthisneedceases，thenaturalbondisdissolved。Thechildren，releasedfromtheobediencetheyowedtothefather，andthefather，releasedfromthecareheowedhischildren，returnequallytoindependence。Iftheyremainunited，theycontinuesonolongernaturally，butvoluntarily;
andthefamilyitselfisthenmaintainedonlybyconvention。
Thiscommonlibertyresultsfromthenatureofman。Hisfirstlawistoprovideforhisownpreservation，hisfirstcaresarethosewhichheowestohimself;and，assoonashereachesyearsofdiscretion，heisthesolejudgeofthepropermeansofpreservinghimself，andconsequentlybecomeshisownmaster。
Thefamilythenmaybecalledthefirstmodelofpoliticalsocieties：
therulercorrespondstothefather，andthepeopletothechildren;andall，beingbornfreeandequal，alienatetheirlibertyonlyfortheirownadvantage。Thewholedifferenceisthat，inthefamily，theloveofthefatherforhischildrenrepayshimforthecarehetakesofthem，while，intheState，thepleasureofcommandingtakestheplaceofthelovewhichthechiefcannothaveforthepeoplesunderhim。
Grotiusdeniesthatallhumanpowerisestablishedinfavourofthegoverned，andquotesslaveryasanexample。Hisusualmethodofreasoningisconstantlytoestablishrightbyfact。1Itwouldbepossibletoemployamorelogicalmethod，butnonecouldbemorefavourabletotyrants。
Itisthen，accordingtoGrotius，doubtfulwhetherthehumanracebelongstoahundredmen，orthathundredmentothehumanrace：and，throughouthisbook，heseemstoinclinetotheformeralternative，whichisalsotheviewofHobbes。Onthisshowing，thehumanspeciesisdividedintosomanyherdsofcattle，eachwithitsruler，whokeepsguardoverthemforthepurposeofdevouringthem。
Asashepherdisofanaturesuperiortothatofhisflock，theshepherdsofmen，i。e。，theirrulers，areofanaturesuperiortothatofthepeoplesunderthem。Thus，Philotellsus，theEmperorCaligulareasoned，concludingequallywelleitherthatkingsweregods，orthatmenwerebeasts。
ThereasoningofCaligulaagreeswiththatofHobbesandGrotius。Aristotle，beforeanyofthem，hadsaidthatmenarebynomeansequalnaturally，butthatsomearebornforslavery，andothersfordominion。
Aristotlewasright;buthetooktheeffectforthecause。Nothingcanbemorecertainthanthateverymanborninslaveryisbornforslavery。
Slavesloseeverythingintheirchains，eventhedesireofescapingfromthem：theylovetheirservitude，asthecomradesofUlysseslovedtheirbrutishcondition。2Ifthenthereareslavesbynature，itisbecausetherehavebeenslavesagainstnature。
Forcemadethefirstslaves，andtheircowardiceperpetuatedthecondition。
IhavesaidnothingofKingAdam，orEmperorNoah，fatherofthethreegreatmonarchswhosharedouttheuniverse，likethechildrenofSaturn，whomsomescholarshaverecognisedinthem。Itrusttogettingduethanksformymoderation;for，beingadirectdescendantofoneoftheseprinces，perhapsoftheeldestbranch，howdoIknowthataverificationoftitlesmightnotleavemethelegitimatekingofthehumanrace？Inanycase，therecanbenodoubtthatAdamwassovereignoftheworld，asRobinsonCrusoewasofhisisland，aslongashewasitsonlyinhabitant;andthisempirehadtheadvantagethatthemonarch，safeonhisthrone，hadnorebellions，wars，orconspiratorstofear。3。THERIGHTOFTHESTRONGESTTHEstrongestisneverstrongenoughtobealwaysthemaster，unlesshetransformsstrengthintoright，andobedienceintoduty。Hencetherightofthestrongest，which，thoughtoallseemingmeantironically，isreallylaiddownasafundamentalprinciple。
Butarewenevertohaveanexplanationofthisphrase？Forceisaphysicalpower，andIfailtoseewhatmoraleffectitcanhave。Toyieldtoforceisanactofnecessity，notofwill？atthemost，anactofprudence。
Inwhatsensecanitbeaduty？
Supposeforamomentthatthisso-called"right"exists。Imaintainthatthesoleresultisamassofinexplicablenonsense。For，ifforcecreatesright，theeffectchangeswiththecause：everyforcethatisgreaterthanthefirstsucceedstoitsright。Assoonasitispossibletodisobeywithimpunity，disobedienceislegitimate;and，thestrongestbeingalwaysintheright，theonlythingthatmattersistoactsoastobecomethestrongest。Butwhatkindofrightisthatwhichperisheswhenforcefails？
Ifwemustobeyperforce，thereisnoneedtoobeybecauseweought;andifwearenotforcedtoobey，weareundernoobligationtodoso。Clearly，theword"right"addsnothingtoforce：inthisconnection，itmeansabsolutelynothing。
Obeythepowersthatbe。Ifthismeansyieldtoforce，itisagoodprecept，butsuperfluous：Icananswerforitsneverbeingviolated。AllpowercomesfromGod，Iadmit;butsodoesallsickness：doesthatmeanthatweareforbiddentocallinthedoctor？Abrigandsurprisesmeattheedgeofawood：mustInotmerelysurrendermypurseoncompulsion;
but，evenifIcouldwithholdit，amIinconscienceboundtogiveitup？
Forcertainlythepistolheholdsisalsoapower。
Letusthenadmitthatforcedoesnotcreateright，andthatweareobligedtoobeyonlylegitimatepowers。Inthatcase，myoriginalquestionrecurs。4。SLAVERYSINCEnomanhasanaturalauthorityoverhisfellow，andforcecreatesnoright，wemustconcludethatconventionsformthebasisofalllegitimateauthorityamongmen。
Ifanindividual，saysGrotius，canalienatehislibertyandmakehimselftheslaveofamaster，whycouldnotawholepeopledothesameandmakeitselfsubjecttoaking？Thereareinthispassageplentyofambiguouswordswhichwouldneedexplaining;butletusconfineourselvestothewordalienate。Toalienateistogiveortosell。Now，amanwhobecomestheslaveofanotherdoesnotgivehimself;hesellshimself，attheleastforhissubsistence：butforwhatdoesapeoplesellitself？
Akingissofarfromfurnishinghissubjectswiththeirsubsistencethathegetshisownonlyfromthem;and，accordingtoRabelais，kingsdonotliveonnothing。Dosubjectsthengivetheirpersonsonconditionthatthekingtakestheirgoodsalso？Ifailtoseewhattheyhavelefttopreserve。
Itwillbesaidthatthedespotassureshissubjectsciviltranquillity。
Granted;butwhatdotheygain，ifthewarshisambitionbringsdownuponthem，hisinsatiableavidity，andthevexationsconductofhisministerspressharderonthemthantheirowndissensionswouldhavedone？Whatdotheygain，iftheverytranquillitytheyenjoyisoneoftheirmiseries？
Tranquillityisfoundalsoindungeons;butisthatenoughtomakethemdesirableplacestolivein？TheGreeksimprisonedinthecaveoftheCyclopslivedthereverytranquilly，whiletheywereawaitingtheirturntobedevoured。
Tosaythatamangiveshimselfgratuitously，istosaywhatisabsurdandinconceivable;suchanactisnullandillegitimate，fromthemerefactthathewhodoesitisoutofhismind。Tosaythesameofawholepeopleistosupposeapeopleofmadmen;andmadnesscreatesnoright。
Evenifeachmancouldalienatehimself，hecouldnotalienatehischildren：
theyarebornmenandfree;theirlibertybelongstothem，andnoonebuttheyhastherighttodisposeofit。Beforetheycometoyearsofdiscretion，thefathercan，intheirname，laydownconditionsfortheirpreservationandwell-being，buthecannotgivethemirrevocablyandwithoutconditions：
suchagiftiscontrarytotheendsofnature，andexceedstherightsofpaternity。Itwouldthereforebenecessary，inordertolegitimiseanarbitrarygovernment，thatineverygenerationthepeopleshouldbeinapositiontoacceptorrejectit;but，werethisso，thegovernmentwouldbenolongerarbitrary。
Torenouncelibertyistorenouncebeingaman，tosurrendertherightsofhumanityandevenitsduties。Forhimwhorenounceseverythingnoindemnityispossible。Sucharenunciationisincompatiblewithman’snature;toremovealllibertyfromhiswillistoremoveallmoralityfromhisacts。
Finally，itisanemptyandcontradictoryconventionthatsetsup，ontheoneside，absoluteauthority，and，ontheother，unlimitedobedience。Isitnotclearthatwecanbeundernoobligationtoapersonfromwhomwehavetherighttoexacteverything？Doesnotthisconditionalone，intheabsenceofequivalenceorexchange，initselfinvolvethenullityoftheact？Forwhatrightcanmyslavehaveagainstme，whenallthathehasbelongstome，and，hisrightbeingmine，thisrightofmineagainstmyselfisaphrasedevoidofmeaning？
Grotiusandtherestfindinwaranotheroriginfortheso-calledrightofslavery。Thevictorhaving，astheyhold，therightofkillingthevanquished，thelattercanbuybackhislifeatthepriceofhisliberty;andthisconventionisthemorelegitimatebecauseitistotheadvantageofbothparties。
Butitisclearthatthissupposedrighttokilltheconqueredisbynomeansdeduciblefromthestateofwar。Men，fromthemerefactthat，whiletheyarelivingintheirprimitiveindependence，theyhavenomutualrelationsstableenoughtoconstituteeitherthestateofpeaceorthestateofwar，cannotbenaturallyenemies。Warisconstitutedbyarelationbetweenthings，andnotbetweenpersons;and，asthestateofwarcannotariseoutofsimplepersonalrelations，butonlyoutofrealrelations，privatewar，orwarofmanwithman，canexistneitherinthestateofnature，wherethereisnoconstantproperty，norinthesocialstate，whereeverythingisundertheauthorityofthelaws。
Individualcombats，duelsandencounters，areactswhichcannotconstituteastate;whiletheprivatewars，authorisedbytheEstablishmentsofLouisIX，KingofFrance，andsuspendedbythePeaceofGod，areabusesoffeudalism，initselfanabsurdsystemifevertherewasone，andcontrarytotheprinciplesofnaturalrightandtoallgoodpolity。
Warthenisarelation，notbetweenmanandman，butbetweenStateandState，andindividualsareenemiesonlyaccidentally，notasmen，norevenascitizens，3butassoldiers;notasmembersoftheircountry，butasitsdefenders。Finally，eachStatecanhaveforenemiesonlyotherStates，andnotmen;forbetweenthingsdisparateinnaturetherecanbenorealrelation。
Furthermore，thisprincipleisinconformitywiththeestablishedrulesofalltimesandtheconstantpracticeofallcivilisedpeoples。Declarationsofwarareintimationslesstopowersthantotheirsubjects。Theforeigner，whetherking，individual，orpeople，whorobs，killsordetainsthesubjects，withoutdeclaringwarontheprince，isnotanenemy，butabrigand。Eveninrealwar，ajustprince，whilelayinghands，intheenemy’scountry，onallthatbelongstothepublic，respectsthelivesandgoodsofindividuals：
herespectsrightsonwhichhisownarefounded。TheobjectofthewarbeingthedestructionofthehostileState，theothersidehasarighttokillitsdefenders，whiletheyarebearingarms;butassoonastheylaythemdownandsurrender，theyceasetobeenemiesorinstrumentsoftheenemy，andbecomeoncemoremerelymen，whoselifenoonehasanyrighttotake。SometimesitispossibletokilltheStatewithoutkillingasingleoneofitsmembers;andwargivesnorightwhichisnotnecessarytothegainingofitsobject。TheseprinciplesarenotthoseofGrotius：theyarenotbasedontheauthorityofpoets，butderivedfromthenatureofrealityandbasedonreason。
Therightofconquesthasnofoundationotherthantherightofthestrongest。Ifwardoesnotgivetheconquerortherighttomassacretheconqueredpeoples，therighttoenslavethemcannotbebaseduponarightwhichdoesnotexist。Noonehasarighttokillanenemyexceptwhenhecannotmakehimaslave，andtherighttoenslavehimcannotthereforebederivedfromtherighttokillhim。Itisaccordinglyanunfairexchangetomakehimbuyatthepriceofhislibertyhislife，overwhichthevictorholdsnoright。Isitnotclearthatthereisaviciouscircleinfoundingtherightoflifeanddeathontherightofslavery，andtherightofslaveryontherightoflifeanddeath？
Evenifweassumethisterriblerighttokilleverybody，Imaintainthataslavemadeinwar，oraconqueredpeople，isundernoobligationtoamaster，excepttoobeyhimasfarasheiscompelledtodoso。Bytakinganequivalentforhislife，thevictorhasnotdonehimafavour;
insteadofkillinghimwithoutprofit，hehaskilledhimusefully。Sofarthenishefromacquiringoverhimanyauthorityinadditiontothatofforce，thatthestateofwarcontinuestosubsistbetweenthem：theirmutualrelationistheeffectofit，andtheusageoftherightofwardoesnotimplyatreatyofpeace。Aconventionhasindeedbeenmade;butthisconvention，sofarfromdestroyingthestateofwar，presupposesitscontinuance。
So，fromwhateveraspectweregardthequestion，therightofslaveryisnullandvoid，notonlyasbeingillegitimate，butalsobecauseitisabsurdandmeaningless。Thewordsslaveandrightcontradicteachother，andaremutuallyexclusive。Itwillalwaysbeequallyfoolishforamantosaytoamanortoapeople："Imakewithyouaconventionwhollyatyourexpenseandwhollytomyadvantage;IshallkeepitaslongasIlike，andyouwillkeepitaslongasIlike。"5。THATWEMUSTALWAYSGOBACKTOAFIRSTCONVENTIONEVENifIgrantedallthatI
havebeenrefuting，thefriendsofdespotismwouldbenobetteroff。Therewillalwaysbeagreatdifferencebetweensubduingamultitudeandrulingasociety。Evenifscatteredindividualsweresuccessivelyenslavedbyoneman，howevernumeroustheymightbe，Istillseenomorethanamasterandhisslaves，andcertainlynotapeopleanditsruler;Iseewhatmaybetermedanaggregation，butnotanassociation;thereisasyetneitherpublicgoodnorbodypolitic。Themaninquestion，evenifhehasenslavedhalftheworld，isstillonlyanindividual;hisinterest，apartfromthatofothers，isstillapurelyprivateinterest。Ifthissamemancomestodie，hisempire，afterhim，remainsscatteredandwithoutunity，asanoakfallsanddissolvesintoaheapofasheswhenthefirehasconsumedit。
Apeople，saysGrotius，cangiveitselftoaking。Then，accordingtoGrotius，apeopleisapeoplebeforeitgivesitself。Thegiftisitselfacivilact，andimpliespublicdeliberation。Itwouldbebetter，beforeexaminingtheactbywhichapeoplegivesitselftoaking，toexaminethatbywhichithasbecomeapeople;forthisact，beingnecessarilypriortotheother，isthetruefoundationofsociety。
Indeed，iftherewerenopriorconvention，where，unlesstheelectionwereunanimous，wouldbetheobligationontheminoritytosubmittothechoiceofthemajority？Howhaveahundredmenwhowishforamastertherighttovoteonbehalfoftenwhodonot？Thelawofmajorityvotingisitselfsomethingestablishedbyconvention，andpresupposesunanimity，ononeoccasionatleast。6。THESOCIALCOMPACTISUPPOSEmentohavereachedthepointatwhichtheobstaclesinthewayoftheirpreservationinthestateofnatureshowtheirpowerofresistancetobegreaterthantheresourcesatthedisposalofeachindividualforhismaintenanceinthatstate。Thatprimitiveconditioncanthensubsistnolonger;andthehumanracewouldperishunlessitchangeditsmannerofexistence。
But，asmencannotengendernewforces，butonlyuniteanddirectexistingones，theyhavenoothermeansofpreservingthemselvesthantheformation，byaggregation，ofasumofforcesgreatenoughtoovercometheresistance。
Thesetheyhavetobringintoplaybymeansofasinglemotivepower，andcausetoactinconcert。
Thissumofforcescanariseonlywhereseveralpersonscometogether：
but，astheforceandlibertyofeachmanarethechiefinstrumentsofhisself-preservation，howcanhepledgethemwithoutharminghisowninterests，andneglectingthecareheowestohimself？Thisdifficulty，initsbearingonmypresentsubject，maybestatedinthefollowingterms：
"Theproblemistofindaformofassociationwhichwilldefendandprotectwiththewholecommonforcethepersonandgoodsofeachassociate，andinwhicheach，whileunitinghimselfwithall，maystillobeyhimselfalone，andremainasfreeasbefore。"ThisisthefundamentalproblemofwhichtheSocialContractprovidesthesolution。
Theclausesofthiscontractaresodeterminedbythenatureoftheactthattheslightestmodificationwouldmakethemvainandineffective;
sothat，althoughtheyhaveperhapsneverbeenformallysetforth，theyareeverywherethesameandeverywheretacitlyadmittedandrecognised，until，ontheviolationofthesocialcompact，eachregainshisoriginalrightsandresumeshisnaturalliberty，whilelosingtheconventionallibertyinfavourofwhichherenouncedit。
Theseclauses，properlyunderstood，maybereducedtoone？thetotalalienationofeachassociate，togetherwithallhisrights，tothewholecommunity;for，inthefirstplace，aseachgiveshimselfabsolutely，theconditionsarethesameforall;and，thisbeingso，noonehasanyinterestinmakingthemburdensometoothers。
Moreover，thealienationbeingwithoutreserve，theunionisasperfectasitcanbe，andnoassociatehasanythingmoretodemand：for，iftheindividualsretainedcertainrights，astherewouldbenocommonsuperiortodecidebetweenthemandthepublic，each，beingononepointhisownjudge，wouldasktobesoonall;thestateofnaturewouldthuscontinue，andtheassociationwouldnecessarilybecomeinoperativeortyrannical。
Finally，eachman，ingivinghimselftoall，giveshimselftonobody;
andasthereisnoassociateoverwhomhedoesnotacquirethesamerightasheyieldsothersoverhimself，hegainsanequivalentforeverythingheloses，andanincreaseofforceforthepreservationofwhathehas。
Ifthenwediscardfromthesocialcompactwhatisnotofitsessence，weshallfindthatitreducesitselftothefollowingterms：
"Eachofusputshispersonandallhispowerincommonunderthesupremedirectionofthegeneralwill，and，inourcorporatecapacity，wereceiveeachmemberasanindivisiblepartofthewhole。"
Atonce，inplaceoftheindividualpersonalityofeachcontractingparty，thisactofassociationcreatesamoralandcollectivebody，composedofasmanymembersastheassemblycontainsvotes，andreceivingfromthisactitsunity，itscommonidentity，itslifeanditswill。Thispublicperson，soformedbytheunionofallotherpersonsformerlytookthenameofcity，4andnowtakesthatofRepublicorbodypolitic;itiscalledbyitsmembersStatewhenpassive。Sovereignwhenactive，andPowerwhencomparedwithotherslikeitself。Thosewhoareassociatedinittakecollectivelythenameofpeople，andseverallyarecalledcitizens，assharinginthesovereignpower，andsubjects，asbeingunderthelawsoftheState。Butthesetermsareoftenconfusedandtakenoneforanother：itisenoughtoknowhowtodistinguishthemwhentheyarebeingusedwithprecision。7。THESOVEREIGNTHISformulashowsusthattheactofassociationcomprisesamutualundertakingbetweenthepublicandtheindividuals，andthateachindividual，inmakingacontract，aswemaysay，withhimself，isboundinadoublecapacity;asamemberoftheSovereignheisboundtotheindividuals，andasamemberoftheStatetotheSovereign。Butthemaximofcivilright，thatnooneisboundbyundertakingsmadetohimself，doesnotapplyinthiscase;forthereisagreatdifferencebetweenincurringanobligationtoyourselfandincurringonetoawholeofwhichyouformapart。
Attentionmustfurtherbecalledtothefactthatpublicdeliberation，whilecompetenttobindallthesubjectstotheSovereign，becauseofthetwodifferentcapacitiesinwhicheachofthemmayberegarded，cannot，fortheoppositereason，bindtheSovereigntoitself;andthatitisconsequentlyagainstthenatureofthebodypoliticfortheSovereigntoimposeonitselfalawwhichitcannotinfringe。Beingabletoregarditselfinonlyonecapacity，itisinthepositionofanindividualwhomakesacontractwithhimself;andthismakesitclearthatthereneitherisnorcanbeanykindoffundamentallawbindingonthebodyofthepeople？noteventhesocialcontractitself。Thisdoesnotmeanthatthebodypoliticcannotenterintoundertakingswithothers，providedthecontractisnotinfringedbythem;forinrelationtowhatisexternaltoit，itbecomesasimplebeing，anindividual。
ButthebodypoliticortheSovereign，drawingitsbeingwhollyfromthesanctityofthecontract，canneverbinditself，eventoanoutsider，todoanythingderogatorytotheoriginalact，forinstance，toalienateanypartofitself，ortosubmittoanotherSovereign。Violationoftheactbywhichitexistswouldbeself-annihilation;andthatwhichisitselfnothingcancreatenothing。
Assoonasthismultitudeissounitedinonebody，itisimpossibletooffendagainstoneofthememberswithoutattackingthebody，andstillmoretooffendagainstthebodywithoutthemembersresentingit。Dutyandinterestthereforeequallyobligethetwocontractingpartiestogiveeachotherhelp;andthesamemenshouldseektocombine，intheirdoublecapacity，alltheadvantagesdependentuponthatcapacity。
Again，theSovereign，beingformedwhollyoftheindividualswhocomposeit，neitherhasnorcanhaveanyinterestcontrarytotheirs;andconsequentlythesovereignpowerneedgivenoguaranteetoitssubjects，becauseitisimpossibleforthebodytowishtohurtallitsmembers。Weshallalsoseelateronthatitcannothurtanyinparticular。TheSovereign，merelybyvirtueofwhatitis，isalwayswhatitshouldbe。
This，however，isnotthecasewiththerelationofthesubjectstotheSovereign，which，despitethecommoninterest，wouldhavenosecuritythattheywouldfulfiltheirundertakings，unlessitfoundmeanstoassureitselfoftheirfidelity。
Infact，eachindividual，asaman，mayhaveaparticularwillcontraryordissimilartothegeneralwillwhichhehasasacitizen。Hisparticularinterestmayspeaktohimquitedifferentlyfromthecommoninterest：hisabsoluteandnaturallyindependentexistencemaymakehimlookuponwhatheowestothecommoncauseasagratuitouscontribution，thelossofwhichwilldolessharmtoothersthanthepaymentofitisburdensometohimself;
and，regardingthemoralpersonwhichconstitutestheStateasapersonaficta，becausenotaman，hemaywishtoenjoytherightsofcitizenshipwithoutbeingreadytofulfilthedutiesofasubject。Thecontinuanceofsuchaninjusticecouldnotbutprovetheundoingofthebodypolitic。
Inorderthenthatthesocialcompactmaynotbeanemptyformula，ittacitlyincludestheundertaking，whichalonecangiveforcetotherest，thatwhoeverrefusestoobeythegeneralwillshallbecompelledtodosobythewholebody。Thismeansnothinglessthanthathewillbeforcedtobefree;forthisistheconditionwhich，bygivingeachcitizentohiscountry，secureshimagainstallpersonaldependence。Inthisliesthekeytotheworkingofthepoliticalmachine;thisalonelegitimisescivilundertakings，which，withoutit，wouldbeabsurd，tyrannical，andliabletothemostfrightfulabuses。8。THECIVILSTATETHEpassagefromthestateofnaturetothecivilstateproducesaveryremarkablechangeinman，bysubstitutingjusticeforinstinctinhisconduct，andgivinghisactionsthemoralitytheyhadformerlylacked。Thenonly，whenthevoiceofdutytakestheplaceofphysicalimpulsesandrightofappetite，doesman，whosofarhadconsideredonlyhimself，findthatheisforcedtoactondifferentprinciples，andtoconsulthisreasonbeforelisteningtohisinclinations。
Although，inthisstate，hedepriveshimselfofsomeadvantageswhichhegotfromnature，hegainsinreturnotherssogreat，hisfacultiesaresostimulatedanddeveloped，hisideassoextended，hisfeelingssoennobled，andhiswholesoulsouplifted，that，didnottheabusesofthisnewconditionoftendegradehimbelowthatwhichheleft，hewouldbeboundtoblesscontinuallythehappymomentwhichtookhimfromitforever，and，insteadofastupidandunimaginativeanimal，madehimanintelligentbeingandaman。
Letusdrawupthewholeaccountintermseasilycommensurable。Whatmanlosesbythesocialcontractishisnaturallibertyandanunlimitedrighttoeverythinghetriestogetandsucceedsingetting;whathegainsiscivillibertyandtheproprietorshipofallhepossesses。Ifwearetoavoidmistakeinweighingoneagainsttheother，wemustclearlydistinguishnaturalliberty，whichisboundedonlybythestrengthoftheindividual，fromcivilliberty，whichislimitedbythegeneralwill;andpossession，whichismerelytheeffectofforceortherightofthefirstoccupier，fromproperty，whichcanbefoundedonlyonapositivetitle。
Wemight，overandaboveallthis，add，towhatmanacquiresinthecivilstate，moralliberty，whichalonemakeshimtrulymasterofhimself;
forthemereimpulseofappetiteisslavery，whileobediencetoalawwhichweprescribetoourselvesisliberty。ButIhavealreadysaidtoomuchonthishead，andthephilosophicalmeaningofthewordlibertydoesnotnowconcernus。9。REALPROPERTYEACHmemberofthecommunitygiveshimselftoit，atthemomentofitsfoundation，justasheis，withalltheresourcesathiscommand，includingthegoodshepossesses。Thisactdoesnotmakepossession，inchanginghands，changeitsnature，andbecomepropertyinthehandsoftheSovereign;but，astheforcesofthecityareincomparablygreaterthanthoseofanindividual，publicpossessionisalso，infact，strongerandmoreirrevocable，withoutbeinganymorelegitimate，atanyratefromthepointofviewofforeigners。FortheState，inrelationtoitsmembers，ismasterofalltheirgoodsbythesocialcontract，which，withintheState，isthebasisofallrights;but，inrelationtootherpowers，itissoonlybytherightofthefirstoccupier，whichitholdsfromitsmembers。
Therightofthefirstoccupier，thoughmorerealthantherightofthestrongest，becomesarealrightonlywhentherightofpropertyhasalreadybeenestablished。Everymanhasnaturallyarighttoeverythingheneeds;butthepositiveactwhichmakeshimproprietorofonethingexcludeshimfromeverythingelse。Havinghisshare，heoughttokeeptoit，andcanhavenofurtherrightagainstthecommunity。Thisiswhytherightofthefirstoccupier，whichinthestateofnatureissoweak，claimstherespectofeverymanincivilsociety。Inthisrightwearerespectingnotsomuchwhatbelongstoanotheraswhatdoesnotbelongtoourselves。
Ingeneral，toestablishtherightofthefirstoccupieroveraplotofground，thefollowingconditionsarenecessary：first，thelandmustnotyetbeinhabited;secondly，amanmustoccupyonlytheamountheneedsforhissubsistence;and，inthethirdplace，possessionmustbetaken，notbyanemptyceremony，butbylabourandcultivation，theonlysignofproprietorshipthatshouldberespectedbyothers，indefaultofalegaltitle。
Ingrantingtherightoffirstoccupancytonecessityandlabour，arewenotreallystretchingitasfarasitcango？Isitpossibletoleavesucharightunlimited？Isittobeenoughtosetfootonaplotofcommonground，inordertobeabletocallyourselfatoncethemasterofit？
Isittobeenoughthatamanhasthestrengthtoexpelothersforamoment，inordertoestablishhisrighttopreventthemfromeverreturning？Howcanamanorapeopleseizeanimmenseterritoryandkeepitfromtherestoftheworldexceptbyapunishableusurpation，sinceallothersarebeingrobbed，bysuchanact，oftheplaceofhabitationandthemeansofsubsistencewhichnaturegavethemincommon？WhenNunezBalboa，standingonthesea-shore，tookpossessionoftheSouthSeasandthewholeofSouthAmericainthenameofthecrownofCastile，wasthatenoughtodispossessalltheiractualinhabitants，andtoshutoutfromthemalltheprincesoftheworld？Onsuchashowing，theseceremoniesareidlymultiplied，andtheCatholicKingneedonlytakepossessionallatonce，fromhisapartment，ofthewholeuniverse，merelymakingasubsequentreservationaboutwhatwasalreadyinthepossessionofotherprinces。
Wecanimaginehowthelandsofindividuals，wheretheywerecontiguousandcametobeunited，becamethepublicterritory，andhowtherightofSovereignty，extendingfromthesubjectsoverthelandstheyheld，becameatoncerealandpersonal。Thepossessorswerethusmademoredependent，andtheforcesattheircommandusedtoguaranteetheirfidelity。Theadvantageofthisdoesnotseemtohavebeenfeltbyancientmonarchs，whocalledthemselvesKingsofthePersians，Scythians，orMacedonians，andseemedtoregardthemselvesmoreasrulersofmenthanasmastersofacountry。
ThoseofthepresentdaymorecleverlycallthemselvesKingsofFrance，Spain，England，etc。：thusholdingtheland，theyarequiteconfidentofholdingtheinhabitants。
Thepeculiarfactaboutthisalienationisthat，intakingoverthegoodsofindividuals，thecommunity，sofarfromdespoilingthem，onlyassuresthemlegitimatepossession，andchangesusurpationintoatruerightandenjoymentintoproprietorship。Thusthepossessors，beingregardedasdepositariesofthepublicgood，andhavingtheirrightsrespectedbyallthemembersoftheStateandmaintainedagainstforeignaggressionbyallitsforces，have，byacessionwhichbenefitsboththepublicandstillmorethemselves，acquired，sotospeak，allthattheygaveup。ThisparadoxmayeasilybeexplainedbythedistinctionbetweentherightswhichtheSovereignandtheproprietorhaveoverthesameestate，asweshallseelateron。
Itmayalsohappenthatmenbegintouniteonewithanotherbeforetheypossessanything，andthat，subsequentlyoccupyingatractofcountrywhichisenoughforall，theyenjoyitincommon，orshareitoutamongthemselves，eitherequallyoraccordingtoascalefixedbytheSovereign。Howevertheacquisitionbemade，therightwhicheachindividualhastohisownestateisalwayssubordinatetotherightwhichthecommunityhasoverall：withoutthis，therewouldbeneitherstabilityinthesocialtie，norrealforceintheexerciseofSovereignty。
Ishallendthischapterandthisbookbyremarkingonafactonwhichthewholesocialsystemshouldrest：i。e。，that，insteadofdestroyingnaturalinequality，thefundamentalcompactsubstitutes，forsuchphysicalinequalityasnaturemayhavesetupbetweenmen，anequalitythatismoralandlegitimate，andthatmen，whomaybeunequalinstrengthorintelligence，becomeeveryoneequalbyconventionandlegalright。5
1。"Learnedinquiriesintopublicrightareoftenonlythehistoryofpastabuses;andtroublingtostudythemtoodeeplyisaprofitlessinfatuation"（EssayontheInterestsofFranceinRelationtoitsNeighbours，bytheMarquisd’Argenson）。ThisisexactlywhatGrotiushasdone。
2。SeeashorttreatiseofPlutarch’sentitledThatAnimalsReason。
3。TheRomans，whounderstoodandrespectedtherightofwarmorethananyothernationonearth，carriedtheirscruplesonthisheadsofarthatacitizenwasnotallowedtoserveasavolunteerwithoutengaginghimselfexpresslyagainsttheenemy，andagainstsuchandsuchanenemybyname。AlegioninwhichtheyoungerCatowasseeinghisfirstserviceunderPopiliushavingbeenreconstructed，theelderCatowrotetoPopiliusthat，ifhewishedhissontocontinueservingunderhim，hemustadministertohimanewmilitaryoath，because，thefirsthavingbeenannulled，hewasnolongerabletobeararmsagainsttheenemy。
ThesameCatowrotetohissontellinghimtotakegreatcarenottogointobattlebeforetakingthisnewoath。IknowthatthesiegeofClusiumandotherisolatedeventscanbequotedagainstme;butIamcitinglawsandcustoms。TheRomansarethepeoplethatleastoftentransgresseditslaws;andnootherpeoplehashadsuchgoodones。
4。Therealmeaningofthiswordhasbeenalmostwhollylostinmoderntimes;mostpeoplemistakeatownforacity，andatownsmanforacitizen。Theydonotknowthathousesmakeatown，butcitizensacity。ThesamemistakelongagocosttheCarthaginiansdear。Ihaveneverreadofthetitleofcitizensbeinggiventothesubjectsofanyprince，noteventheancientMacedoniansortheEnglishofto-day，thoughtheyarenearerlibertythananyoneelse。TheFrenchaloneeverywherefamiliarlyadoptthenameofcitizens，because，ascanbeseenfromtheirdictionaries，theyhavenoideaofitsmeaning;otherwisetheywouldbeguiltyinusurpingit，ofthecrimeoflèse-majesté：
amongthem，thenameexpressesavirtue，andnotaright。WhenBodinspokeofourcitizensandtownsmen，hefellintoabadblunderintakingtheoneclassfortheother。M。d’Alemberthasavoidedtheerror，and，inhisarticleonGeneva，hasclearlydistinguishedthefourordersofmen（orevenfive，countingmereforeigners）whodwellinourtown，ofwhichtwoonlycomposetheRepublic。NootherFrenchwriter，tomyknowledge，hasunderstoodtherealmeaningofthewordcitizen。
5。Underbadgovernments，thisequalityisonlyapparentandillusory：itservesonlyto-keepthepauperinhispovertyandtherichmaninthepositionhehasusurped。Infact，lawsarealwaysofusetothosewhopossessandharmfultothosewhohavenothing：
fromwhichitfollowsthatthesocialstateisadvantageoustomenonlywhenallhavesomethingandnonetoomuch。
Rousseau：SocialContract：BookIIBOOKII1。THATSOVEREIGNTYISINALIENABLETHEfirstandmostimportantdeductionfromtheprincipleswehavesofarlaiddownisthatthegeneralwillalonecandirecttheStateaccordingtotheobjectforwhichitwasinstituted，i。e。，thecommongood：foriftheclashingofparticularinterestsmadetheestablishmentofsocietiesnecessary，theagreementoftheseveryinterestsmadeitpossible。Thecommonelementinthesedifferentinterestsiswhatformsthesocialtie;and，weretherenopointofagreementbetweenthemall，nosocietycouldexist。Itissolelyonthebasisofthiscommoninterestthateverysocietyshouldbegoverned。
IholdthenthatSovereignty，beingnothinglessthantheexerciseofthegeneralwill，canneverbealienated，andthattheSovereign，whoisnolessthanacollectivebeing，cannotberepresentedexceptbyhimself：
thepowerindeedmaybetransmitted，butnotthewill。
Inreality，ifitisnotimpossibleforaparticularwilltoagreeonsomepointwiththegeneralwill，itisatleastimpossiblefortheagreementtobelastingandconstant;fortheparticularwilltends，byitsverynature，topartiality，whilethegeneralwilltendstoequality。Itisevenmoreimpossibletohaveanyguaranteeofthisagreement;forevenifitshouldalwaysexist，itwouldbetheeffectnotofart，butofchance。
TheSovereignmayindeedsay："Inowwillactuallywhatthismanwills，oratleastwhathesayshewills";butitcannotsay："Whathewillstomorrow，Itooshallwill"becauseitisabsurdforthewilltobinditselfforthefuture，norisitincumbentonanywilltoconsenttoanythingthatisnotforthegoodofthebeingwhowills。Ifthenthepeoplepromisessimplytoobey，bythatveryactitdissolvesitselfandloseswhatmakesitapeople;themomentamasterexists，thereisnolongeraSovereign，andfromthatmomentthebodypolitichasceasedtoexist。
Thisdoesnotmeanthatthecommandsoftherulerscannotpassforgeneralwills，solongastheSovereign，beingfreetoopposethem，offersnoopposition。
Insuchacase，universalsilenceistakentoimplytheconsentofthepeople。Thiswillbeexplainedlateron。2。THATSOVEREIGNTYISINDIVISIBLESOVEREIGNTY，forthesamereasonasmakesitinalienable，isindivisible;forwilleitheris，orisnot，general;6itisthewilleitherofthebodyofthepeople，oronlyofapartofit。Inthefirstcase，thewill，whendeclared，isanactofSovereigntyandconstituteslaw：inthesecond，itismerelyaparticularwill，oractofmagistracy？atthemostadecree。
Butourpoliticaltheorists，unabletodivideSovereigntyinprinciple，divideitaccordingtoitsobject：intoforceandwill;intolegislativepowerandexecutivepower;intorightsoftaxation，justiceandwar;intointernaladministrationandpowerofforeigntreaty。Sometimestheyconfuseallthesesections，andsometimestheydistinguishthem;theyturntheSovereignintoafantasticbeingcomposedofseveralconnectedpieces：
itisasiftheyweremakingmanofseveralbodies，onewitheyes，onewitharms，anotherwithfeet，andeachwithnothingbesides。WearetoldthatthejugglersofJapandismemberachildbeforetheeyesofthespectators;
thentheythrowallthemembersintotheaironeafteranother，andthechildfallsdownaliveandwhole。Theconjuringtricksofourpoliticaltheoristsareverylikethat;theyfirstdismembertheBodypoliticbyanillusionworthyofafair，andthenjoinittogetheragainweknownothow。
ThiserrorisduetoalackofexactnotionsconcerningtheSovereignauthority，andtotakingforpartsofitwhatareonlyemanationsfromit。Thus，forexample，theactsofdeclaringwarandmakingpeacehavebeenregardedasactsofSovereignty;butthisisnotthecase，astheseactsdonotconstitutelaw，butmerelytheapplicationofalaw，aparticularactwhichdecideshowthelawapplies，asweshallseeclearlywhentheideaattachedtothewordlawhasbeendefined。
Ifweexaminedtheotherdivisionsinthesamemanner，weshouldfindthat，wheneverSovereigntyseemstobedivided，thereisanillusion：therightswhicharetakenasbeingpartofSovereigntyarereallyallsubordinate，andalwaysimplysupremewillsofwhichtheyonlysanctiontheexecution。
Itwouldbeimpossibletoestimatetheobscuritythislackofexactnesshasthrownoverthedecisionsofwriterswhohavedealtwithpoliticalright，whentheyhaveusedtheprincipleslaiddownbythemtopassjudgmentontherespectiverightsofkingsandpeoples。Everyonecansee，inChaptersIIIandIVoftheFirstBookofGrotius，howthelearnedmanandhistranslator，Barbeyrac，entangleandtiethemselvesupintheirownsophistries，forfearofsayingtoolittleortoomuchofwhattheythink，andsooffendingtheintereststheyhavetoconciliate。Grotius，arefugeeinFrance，ill-contentwithhisowncountry，anddesirousofpayinghiscourttoLouisXIII，towhomhisbookisdedicated，sparesnopainstorobthepeoplesofalltheirrightsandinvestkingswiththembyeveryconceivableartifice。ThiswouldalsohavebeenmuchtothetasteofBarbeyrac，whodedicatedhistranslationtoGeorgeIofEngland。ButunfortunatelytheexpulsionofJamesII，whichhecalledhis"abdication，"compelledhimtouseallreserve，toshuffleandtotergiversate，inordertoavoidmakingWilliamoutausurper。Ifthesetwowritershadadoptedthetrueprinciples，alldifficultieswouldhavebeenremoved，andtheywouldhavebeenalwaysconsistent;butitwouldhavebeenasadtruthforthemtotell，andwouldhavepaidcourtforthemtonoonesavethepeople。Moreover，truthisnoroadtofortune，andthepeopledispensesneitherambassadorships，norprofessorships，norpensions。3。WHETHERTHEGENERALWILLISFALLIBLEITfollowsfromwhathasgonebeforethatthegeneralwillisalwaysrightandtendstothepublicadvantage;
butitdoesnotfollowthatthedeliberationsofthepeoplearealwaysequallycorrect。Ourwillisalwaysforourowngood，butwedonotalwaysseewhatthatis;thepeopleisnevercorrupted，butitisoftendeceived，andonsuchoccasionsonlydoesitseemtowillwhatisbad。
Thereisoftenagreatdealofdifferencebetweenthewillofallandthegeneralwill;thelatterconsidersonlythecommoninterest，whiletheformertakesprivateinterestintoaccount，andisnomorethanasumofparticularwills：buttakeawayfromthesesamewillstheplusesandminusesthatcanceloneanother，7andthegeneralwillremainsasthesumofthedifferences。
If，whenthepeople，beingfurnishedwithadequateinformation，helditsdeliberations，thecitizenshadnocommunicationonewithanother，thegrandtotalofthesmalldifferenceswouldalwaysgivethegeneralwill，andthedecisionwouldalwaysbegood。Butwhenfactionsarise，andpartialassociationsareformedattheexpenseofthegreatassociation，thewillofeachoftheseassociationsbecomesgeneralinrelationtoitsmembers，whileitremainsparticularinrelationtotheState：itmaythenbesaidthattherearenolongerasmanyvotesastherearemen，butonlyasmanyasthereareassociations。Thedifferencesbecomelessnumerousandgivealessgeneralresult。Lastly，whenoneoftheseassociationsissogreatastoprevailoveralltherest，theresultisnolongerasumofsmalldifferences，butasingledifference;inthiscasethereisnolongerageneralwill，andtheopinionwhichprevailsispurelyparticular。
Itisthereforeessential，ifthegeneralwillistobeabletoexpressitself，thatthereshouldbenopartialsocietywithintheState，andthateachcitizenshouldthinkonlyhisownthoughts：8whichwasindeedthesublimeanduniquesystemestablishedbythegreatLycurgus。Butiftherearepartialsocieties，itisbesttohaveasmanyaspossibleandtopreventthemfrombeingunequal，aswasdonebySolon，NumaandServius。Theseprecautionsaretheonlyonesthatcanguaranteethatthegeneralwillshallbealwaysenlightened，andthatthepeopleshallinnowaydeceiveitself。4。THELIMITSOFTHESOVEREIGNPOWERIFtheStateisamoralpersonwhoselifeisintheunionofitsmembers，andifthemostimportantofitscaresisthecareforitsownpreservation，itmusthaveauniversalandcompellingforce，inordertomoveanddisposeeachpartasmaybemostadvantageoustothewhole。Asnaturegiveseachmanabsolutepoweroverallhismembers，thesocialcompactgivesthebodypoliticabsolutepoweroverallitsmembersalso;anditisthispowerwhich，underthedirectionofthegeneralwill，bears，asIhavesaid，thenameofSovereignty。
But，besidesthepublicperson，wehavetoconsidertheprivatepersonscomposingit，whoselifeandlibertyarenaturallyindependentofit。WeareboundthentodistinguishclearlybetweentherespectiverightsofthecitizensandtheSovereign，9andbetweenthedutiestheformerhavetofulfilassubjects，andthenaturalrightstheyshouldenjoyasmen。
Eachmanalienates，Iadmit，bythesocialcompact，onlysuchpartofhispowers，goodsandlibertyasitisimportantforthecommunitytocontrol;
butitmustalsobegrantedthattheSovereignissolejudgeofwhatisimportant。
EveryserviceacitizencanrendertheStateheoughttorenderassoonastheSovereigndemandsit;buttheSovereign，foritspart，cannotimposeuponitssubjectsanyfettersthatareuselesstothecommunity，norcanitevenwishtodoso;fornomorebythelawofreasonthanbythelawofnaturecananythingoccurwithoutacause。
Theundertakingswhichbindustothesocialbodyareobligatoryonlybecausetheyaremutual;andtheirnatureissuchthatinfulfillingthemwecannotworkforotherswithoutworkingforourselves。Whyisitthatthegeneralwillisalwaysintheright，andthatallcontinuallywillthehappinessofeachone，unlessitisbecausethereisnotamanwhodoesnotthinkof"each"asmeaninghim，andconsiderhimselfinvotingforall？Thisprovesthatequalityofrightsandtheideaofjusticewhichsuchequalitycreatesoriginateinthepreferenceeachmangivestohimself，andaccordinglyintheverynatureofman。Itprovesthatthegeneralwill，tobereallysuch，mustbegeneralinitsobjectaswellasitsessence;
thatitmustbothcomefromallandapplytoall;andthatitlosesitsnaturalrectitudewhenitisdirectedtosomeparticularanddeterminateobject，becauseinsuchacasewearejudgingofsomethingforeigntous，andhavenotrueprincipleofequitytoguideus。
Indeed，assoonasaquestionofparticularfactorrightarisesonapointnotpreviouslyregulatedbyageneralconvention，thematterbecomescontentious。Itisacaseinwhichtheindividualsconcernedareoneparty，andthepublictheother，butinwhichIcanseeneitherthelawthatoughttobefollowednorthejudgewhooughttogivethedecision。Insuchacase，itwouldbeabsurdtoproposetoreferthequestiontoanexpressdecisionofthegeneralwill，whichcanbeonlytheconclusionreachedbyoneofthepartiesandinconsequencewillbe，fortheotherparty，merelyanexternalandparticularwill，inclinedonthisoccasiontoinjusticeandsubjecttoerror。Thus，justasaparticularwillcannotstandforthegeneralwill，thegeneralwill，inturn，changesitsnature，whenitsobjectisparticular，and，asgeneral，cannotpronounceonamanorafact。
When，forinstance，thepeopleofAthensnominatedordisplaceditsrulers，decreedhonourstoone，andimposedpenaltiesonanother，and，byamultitudeofparticulardecrees，exercisedallthefunctionsofgovernmentindiscriminately，ithadinsuchcasesnolongerageneralwillinthestrictsense;itwasactingnolongerasSovereign，butasmagistrate。Thiswillseemcontrarytocurrentviews;butImustbegiventimetoexpoundmyown。
Itshouldbeseenfromtheforegoingthatwhatmakesthewillgeneralislessthenumberofvotersthanthecommoninterestunitingthem;for，underthissystem，eachnecessarilysubmitstotheconditionsheimposesonothers：andthisadmirableagreementbetweeninterestandjusticegivestothecommondeliberationsanequitablecharacterwhichatoncevanisheswhenanyparticularquestionisdiscussed，intheabsenceofacommoninteresttouniteandidentifytherulingofthejudgewiththatoftheparty。
Fromwhateversideweapproachourprinciple，wereachthesameconclusion，thatthesocialcompactsetsupamongthecitizensanequalityofsuchakind，thattheyallbindthemselvestoobservethesameconditionsandshouldthereforeallenjoythesamerights。Thus，fromtheverynatureofthecompact，everyactofSovereignty，i。e。，everyauthenticactofthegeneralwill，bindsorfavoursallthecitizensequally;sothattheSovereignrecognisesonlythebodyofthenation，anddrawsnodistinctionsbetweenthoseofwhomitismadeup。What，then，strictlyspeaking，isanactofSovereignty？Itisnotaconventionbetweenasuperiorandaninferior，butaconventionbetweenthebodyandeachofitsmembers。Itislegitimate，becausebasedonthesocialcontract，andequitable，becausecommontoall;useful，becauseitcanhavenootherobjectthanthegeneralgood，andstable，becauseguaranteedbythepublicforceandthesupremepower。Solongasthesubjectshavetosubmitonlytoconventionsofthissort，theyobeyno-onebuttheirownwill;andtoaskhowfartherespectiverightsoftheSovereignandthecitizensextend，istoaskuptowhatpointthelattercanenterintoundertakingswiththemselves，eachwithall，andallwitheach。
Wecanseefromthisthatthesovereignpower，absolute，sacredandinviolableasitis，doesnotandcannotexceedthelimitsofgeneralconventions，andthateverymanmaydisposeatwillofsuchgoodsandlibertyastheseconventionsleavehim;sothattheSovereignneverhasarighttolaymorechargesononesubjectthanonanother，because，inthatcase，thequestionbecomesparticular，andceasestobewithinitscompetency。
Whenthesedistinctionshaveoncebeenadmitted，itisseentobesountruethatthereis，inthesocialcontract，anyrealrenunciationonthepartoftheindividuals，thatthepositioninwhichtheyfindthemselvesasaresultofthecontractisreallypreferabletothatinwhichtheywerebefore。Insteadofarenunciation，theyhavemadeanadvantageousexchange：insteadofanuncertainandprecariouswayoflivingtheyhavegotonethatisbetterandmoresecure;insteadofnaturalindependencetheyhavegotliberty，insteadofthepowertoharmotherssecurityforthemselves，andinsteadoftheirstrength，whichothersmightovercome，arightwhichsocialunionmakesinvincible。Theirverylife，whichtheyhavedevotedtotheState，isbyitconstantlyprotected;andwhentheyriskitintheState’sdefence，whatmorearetheydoingthangivingbackwhattheyhavereceivedfromit？Whataretheydoingthattheywouldnotdomoreoftenandwithgreaterdangerinthestateofnature，inwhichtheywouldinevitablyhavetofightbattlesattheperiloftheirlivesindefenceofthatwhichisthemeansoftheirpreservation？Allhaveindeedtofightwhentheircountryneedsthem;butthennoonehasevertofightforhimself。Dowenotgainsomethingbyrunning，onbehalfofwhatgivesusoursecurity，onlysomeoftherisksweshouldhavetorunforourselves，assoonaswelostit？5。THERIGHTOFLIFEANDDEATHTHEquestionisoftenaskedhowindividuals，havingnorighttodisposeoftheirownlives，cantransfertotheSovereignarightwhichtheydonotpossess。Thedifficultyofansweringthisquestionseemstometolieinitsbeingwronglystated。Everymanhasarighttoriskhisownlifeinordertopreserveit。Hasiteverbeensaidthatamanwhothrowshimselfoutofthewindowtoescapefromafireisguiltyofsuicide？Hassuchacrimeeverbeenlaidtothechargeofhimwhoperishesinastormbecause，whenhewentonboard，heknewofthedanger？
Thesocialtreatyhasforitsendthepreservationofthecontractingparties。Hewhowillstheendwillsthemeansalso，andthemeansmustinvolvesomerisks，andevensomelosses。Hewhowishestopreservehislifeatothers’expenseshouldalso，whenitisnecessary，bereadytogiveitupfortheirsake。Furthermore，thecitizenisnolongerthejudgeofthedangerstowhichthelaw-desireshimtoexposehimself;andwhentheprincesaystohim："ItisexpedientfortheStatethatyoushoulddie，"heoughttodie，becauseitisonlyonthatconditionthathehasbeenlivinginsecurityuptothepresent，andbecausehislifeisnolongeramerebountyofnature，butagiftmadeconditionallybytheState。
Thedeath-penaltyinflicteduponcriminalsmaybelookedoninmuchthesamelight：itisinorderthatwemaynotfallvictimstoanassassinthatweconsenttodieifweourselvesturnassassins。Inthistreaty，sofarfromdisposingofourownlives，wethinkonlyofsecuringthem，anditisnottobeassumedthatanyofthepartiesthenexpectstogethanged。
Again，everymalefactor，byattackingsocialrights，becomesonforfeitarebelandatraitortohiscountry;byviolatingitslawsbeceasestobeamemberofit;heevenmakeswaruponit。InsuchacasethepreservationoftheStateisinconsistentwithhisown，andoneortheothermustperish;
inputtingtheguiltytodeath，weslaynotsomuchthecitizenasanenemy。
Thetrialandthejudgmentaretheproofsthathehasbrokenthesocialtreaty，andisinconsequencenolongeramemberoftheState。Since，then，hehasrecognisedhimselftobesuchbylivingthere，hemustberemovedbyexileasaviolatorofthecompact，orbydeathasapublicenemy;forsuchanenemyisnotamoralperson，butmerelyaman;andinsuchacasetherightofwaristokillthevanquished。
But，itwillbesaid，thecondemnationofacriminalisaparticularact。Iadmitit：butsuchcondemnationisnotafunctionoftheSovereign;
itisarighttheSovereigncanconferwithoutbeingableitselftoexertit。Allmyideasareconsistent，butIcannotexpoundthemallatonce。
Wemayaddthatfrequentpunishmentsarealwaysasignofweaknessorremissnessonthepartofthegovernment。Thereisnotasingleill-doerwhocouldnotbeturnedtosomegood。TheStatehasnorighttoputtodeath，evenforthesakeofmakinganexample，anyonewhomitcanleavealivewithoutdanger。
Therightofpardoningorexemptingtheguiltyfromapenaltyimposedbythelawandpronouncedbythejudgebelongsonlytotheauthoritywhichissuperiortobothjudgeandlaw，i。e。，theSovereign;eachitsrightinthismatterisfarfromclear，andthecasesforexercisingitareextremelyrare。Inawell-governedState，therearefewpunishments，notbecausetherearemanypardons，butbecausecriminalsarerare;itiswhenaStateisindecaythatthemultitudeofcrimesisaguaranteeofimpunity。UndertheRomanRepublic，neithertheSenatenortheConsulseverattemptedtopardon;eventhepeopleneverdidso，thoughitsometimesrevokeditsowndecision。Frequentpardonsmeanthatcrimewillsoonneedthemnolonger，andnoonecanhelpseeingwhitherthatleads。ButIfeelmyheartprotestingandrestrainingmypen;letusleavethesequestionstothejustmanwhohasneveroffended，andwouldhimselfstandinnoneedofpardon。6。LAWBYthesocialcompactwehavegiventhebodypoliticexistenceandlife;wehavenowbylegislationtogiveitmovementandwill。Fortheoriginalactbywhichthebodyisformedandunitedstillinnorespectdetermineswhatitoughttodoforitspreservation。
Whatiswellandinconformitywithorderissobythenatureofthingsandindependentlyofhumanconventions。AlljusticecomesfromGod，whoisitssolesource;butifweknewhowtoreceivesohighaninspiration，weshouldneedneithergovernmentnorlaws。Doubtless，thereisauniversaljusticeemanatingfromreasonalone;butthisjustice，tobeadmittedamongus，mustbemutual。Humanlyspeaking，indefaultofnaturalsanctions，thelawsofjusticeareineffectiveamongmen：theymerelymakeforthegoodofthewickedandtheundoingofthejust，whenthejustmanobservesthemtowardseverybodyandnobodyobservesthemtowardshim。Conventionsandlawsarethereforeneededtojoinrightstodutiesandreferjusticetoitsobject。Inthestateofnature，whereeverythingiscommon，IowenothingtohimwhomIhavepromisednothing;Irecogniseasbelongingtoothersonlywhatisofnousetome。Inthestateofsocietyallrightsarefixedbylaw，andthecasebecomesdifferent。
Butwhat，afterall，isalaw？Aslongasweremainsatisfiedwithattachingpurelymetaphysicalideastotheword，weshallgoonarguingwithoutarrivingatanunderstanding;andwhenwehavedefinedalawofnature，weshallbenonearerthedefinitionofalawoftheState。
Ihavealreadysaidthattherecanbenogeneralwilldirectedtoaparticularobject。SuchanobjectmustbeeitherwithinoroutsidetheState。Ifoutside，awillwhichisalientoitcannotbe，inrelationtoit，general;ifwithin，itispartoftheState，andinthatcasetherearisesarelationbetweenwholeandpartwhichmakesthemtwoseparatebeings，ofwhichthepartisone，andthewholeminustheparttheother。
Butthewholeminusapartcannotbethewhole;andwhilethisrelationpersists，therecanbenowhole，butonlytwounequalparts;anditfollowsthatthewillofoneisnolongerinanyrespectgeneralinrelationtotheother。
Butwhenthewholepeopledecreesforthewholepeople，itisconsideringonlyitself;andifarelationisthenformed，itisbetweentwoaspectsoftheentireobject，withouttherebeinganydivisionofthewhole。Inthatcasethematteraboutwhichthedecreeismadeis，likethedecreeingwill，general。ThisactiswhatIcallalaw。
WhenIsaythattheobjectoflawsisalwaysgeneral，Imeanthatlawconsiderssubjectsenmasseandactionsintheabstract，andneveraparticularpersonoraction。Thusthelawmayindeeddecreethatthereshallbeprivileges，butcannotconferthemonanybodybyname。Itmaysetupseveralclassesofcitizens，andevenlaydownthequalificationsformembershipoftheseclasses，butitcannotnominatesuchandsuchpersonsasbelongingtothem;itmayestablishamonarchicalgovernmentandhereditarysuccession，butitcannotchooseaking，ornominatearoyalfamily。Inaword，nofunctionwhichhasaparticularobjectbelongstothelegislativepower。
Onthisview，weatonceseethatitcannolongerbeaskedwhosebusinessitistomakelaws，sincetheyareactsofthegeneralwill;norwhethertheprinceisabovethelaw，sinceheisamemberoftheState;norwhetherthelawcanbeunjust，sincenooneisunjusttohimself;norhowwecanbebothfreeandsubjecttothelaws，sincetheyarebutregistersofourwills。
Weseefurtherthat，asthelawunitesuniversalityofwillwithuniversalityofobject，whataman，whoeverhebe，commandsofhisownmotioncannotbealaw;andevenwhattheSovereigncommandswithregardtoaparticularmatterisnonearerbeingalaw，butisadecree，anact，notofsovereignty，butofmagistracy。
Ithereforegivethename"Republic"toeveryStatethatisgovernedbylaws，nomatterwhattheformofitsadministrationmaybe：foronlyinsuchacasedoesthepublicinterestgovern，andtherespublicarankasareality。Everylegitimategovernmentisrepublican;10whatgovernmentisIwillexplainlateron。
Lawsare，properlyspeaking，onlytheconditionsofcivilassociation。
Thepeople，beingsubjecttothelaws，oughttobetheirauthor：theconditionsofthesocietyoughttoberegulatedsolelybythosewhocometogethertoformit。Buthowaretheytoregulatethem？Isittobebycommonagreement，byasuddeninspiration？Hasthebodypoliticanorgantodeclareitswill？
Whocangiveittheforesighttoformulateandannounceitsactsinadvance？
Orhowisittoannouncetheminthehourofneed？Howcanablindmultitude，whichoftendoesnotknowwhatitwills，becauseitrarelyknowswhatisgoodforit，carryoutforitselfsogreatanddifficultanenterpriseasasystemoflegislation？Ofitselfthepeoplewillsalwaysthegood，butofitselfitbynomeansalwaysseesit。Thegeneralwillisalwaysintheright，butthejudgmentwhichguidesitisnotalwaysenlightened。
Itmustbegottoseeobjectsastheyare，andsometimesastheyoughttoappeartoit;itmustbeshownthegoodroaditisinsearchof，securedfromtheseductiveinfluencesofindividualwills，taughttoseetimesandspacesasaseries，andmadetoweightheattractionsofpresentandsensibleadvantagesagainstthedangerofdistantandhiddenevils。Theindividualsseethegoodtheyreject;thepublicwillsthegooditdoesnotsee。Allstandequallyinneedofguidance。Theformermustbecompelledtobringtheirwillsintoconformitywiththeirreason;thelattermustbetaughttoknowwhatitwills。Ifthatisdone，publicenlightenmentleadstotheunionofunderstandingandwillinthesocialbody：thepartsaremadetoworkexactlytogether，andthewholeisraisedtoitshighestpower。Thismakesalegislatornecessary。7。THELEGISLATORINordertodiscovertherulesofsocietybestsuitedtonations，asuperiorintelligencebeholdingallthepassionsofmenwithoutexperiencinganyofthemwouldbeneeded。Thisintelligencewouldhavetobewhollyunrelatedtoournature，whileknowingitthroughandthrough;itshappinesswouldhavetobeindependentofus，andyetreadytooccupyitselfwithours;andlastly，itwouldhave，inthemarchoftime，tolookforwardtoadistantglory，and，workinginonecentury，tobeabletoenjoyinthenext。11Itwouldtakegodstogivemenlaws。
WhatCaligulaarguedfromthefacts，Plato，inthedialoguecalledthePoliticus，arguedindefiningthecivilorkinglyman，onthebasisofright。Butifgreatprincesarerare，howmuchmoresoaregreatlegislators？
Theformerhaveonlytofollowthepatternwhichthelatterhavetolaydown。Thelegislatoristheengineerwhoinventsthemachine，theprincemerelythemechanicwhosetsitupandmakesitgo。"Atthebirthofsocieties，"
saysMontesquieu，"therulersofRepublicsestablishinstitutions，andafterwardstheinstitutionsmouldtherulers。"12
Hewhodarestoundertakethemakingofapeople’sinstitutionsoughttofeelhimselfcapable，sotospeak，ofchanginghumannature，oftransformingeachindividual，whoisbyhimselfacompleteandsolitarywhole，intopartofagreaterwholefromwhichheinamannerreceiveshislifeandbeing;ofalteringman’sconstitutionforthepurposeofstrengtheningit;andofsubstitutingapartialandmoralexistenceforthephysicalandindependentexistencenaturehasconferredonusall。Hemust，inaword，takeawayfrommanhisownresourcesandgivehiminsteadnewonesalientohim，andincapableofbeingmadeuseofwithoutthehelpofothermen。Themorecompletelythesenaturalresourcesareannihilated，thegreaterandthemorelastingarethosewhichheacquires，andthemorestableandperfectthenewinstitutions;sothatifeachcitizenisnothingandcandonothingwithouttherest，andtheresourcesacquiredbythewholeareequalorsuperiortotheaggregateoftheresourcesofalltheindividuals，itmaybesaidthatlegislationisatthehighestpossiblepointofperfection。
ThelegislatoroccupiesineveryrespectanextraordinarypositionintheState。Ifheshoulddosobyreasonofhisgenius，hedoessonolessbyreasonofhisoffice，whichisneithermagistracy，norSovereignty。
Thisoffice，whichsetsuptheRepublic，nowhereentersintoitsconstitution;
itisanindividualandsuperiorfunction，whichhasnothingincommonwithhumanempire;forifhewhoholdscommandovermenoughtnottohavecommandoverthelaws，hewhohascommandoverthelawsoughtnotanymoretohaveitovermen;orelsehislawswouldbetheministersofhispassionsandwouldoftenmerelyservetoperpetuatehisinjustices：hisprivateaimswouldinevitablymarthesanctityofhiswork。
WhenLycurgusgavelawstohiscountry，hebeganbyresigningthethrone。
ItwasthecustomofmostGreektownstoentrusttheestablishmentoftheirlawstoforeigners。TheRepublicsofmodernItalyinmanycasesfollowedthisexample;Genevadidthesameandprofitedbyit。13Rome，whenitwasmostprosperous，sufferedarevivalofallthecrimesoftyranny，andwasbroughttothevergeofdestruction，becauseitputthelegislativeauthorityandthesovereignpowerintothesamehands。
Nevertheless，thedecemvirsthemselvesneverclaimedtherighttopassanylawmerelyontheirownauthority。"Nothingweproposetoyou，"theysaidtothepeople，"canpassintolawwithoutyourconsent。Romans，beyourselvestheauthorsofthelawswhicharetomakeyouhappy。"
He，therefore，whodrawsupthelawshas，orshouldhave，norightoflegislation，andthepeoplecannot，evenifitwishes，depriveitselfofthisincommunicableright，because，accordingtothefundamentalcompact，onlythegeneralwillcanbindtheindividuals，andtherecanbenoassurancethataparticularwillisinconformitywiththegeneralwill，untilithasbeenputtothefreevoteofthepeople。ThisIhavesaidalready;
butitisworthwhiletorepeatit。
Thusinthetaskoflegislationwefindtogethertwothingswhichappeartobeincompatible：anenterprisetoodifficultforhumanpowers，and，foritsexecution，anauthoritythatisnoauthority。
Thereisafurtherdifficultythatdeservesattention。Wisemen，iftheytrytospeaktheirlanguagetothecommonherdinsteadofitsown，cannotpossiblymakethemselvesunderstood。Thereareathousandkindsofideaswhichitisimpossibletotranslateintopopularlanguage。Conceptionsthataretoogeneralandobjectsthataretooremoteareequallyoutofitsrange：eachindividual，havingnotasteforanyotherplanofgovernmentthanthatwhichsuitshisparticularinterest，findsitdifficulttorealisetheadvantageshemighthopetodrawfromthecontinualprivationsgoodlawsimpose。Forayoungpeopletobeabletorelishsoundprinciplesofpoliticaltheoryandfollowthefundamentalrulesofstatecraft，theeffectwouldhavetobecomethecause;thesocialspirit，whichshouldbecreatedbytheseinstitutions，wouldhavetopresideovertheirveryfoundation;
andmenwouldhavetobebeforelawwhattheyshouldbecomebymeansoflaw。Thelegislatortherefore，beingunabletoappealtoeitherforceorreason，musthaverecoursetoanauthorityofadifferentorder，capableofconstrainingwithoutviolenceandpersuadingwithoutconvincing。
Thisiswhathas，inallages，compelledthefathersofnationstohaverecoursetodivineinterventionandcreditthegodswiththeirownwisdom，inorderthatthepeoples，submittingtothelawsoftheStateastothoseofnature，andrecognisingthesamepowerintheformationofthecityasinthatofman，mightobeyfreely，andbearwithdocilitytheyokeofthepublichappiness。
Thissublimereason，farabovetherangeofthecommonherd，isthatwhosedecisionsthelegislatorputsintothemouthoftheimmortals，inordertoconstrainbydivineauthoritythosewhomhumanprudencecouldnotmove。14Butitisnotanybodywhocanmakethegodsspeak，orgethimselfbelievedwhenheproclaimshimselftheirinterpreter。Thegreatsoulofthelegislatoristheonlymiraclethatcanprovehismission。Anymanmaygravetabletsofstone，orbuyanoracle，orfeignsecretintercoursewithsomedivinity，ortrainabirdtowhisperinhisear，orfindothervulgarwaysofimposingonthepeople。