ChileemergedfromthewarnotonlytriumphantoveritsnorthernrivalsbutdominantonthewestcoastofSouthAmerica。ImportantdevelopmentsinChileannationalpolicyfollowed。Tomaintainitsvantageandtoguardagainstreprisals，thevictoriousstatehadtokeepinmilitaryreadinessonlandandsea。ItthereforelookedtoPrussiaforapatternforitsarmyandtoGreatBritainforamodelforitsnavy。
Peruhadsufferedcruellyfromthewar。Itsterritoriallossesdepriveditofanopportunitytosatisfyitsforeigncreditorsthroughagrantofconcessions。Thepublictreasury，too，wasempty，andmanyaprivatefortunehadmeltedaway。NotuntilamilitaryhandstrongerthanitscompetitorsmanagedtosecureafirmgriponaffairsdidPerubeginoncemoreitstoilsomejourneytowardmaterialbetterment。
Bolivia，onitspart，hademergedfromthestrugglepracticallyalandlockedcountry。Thoughbereftofaccesstotheseaexceptbypermissionofitsneighbors，ithad，however，notenduredanythinglikethecalamitiesofitsally。In1880ithadadoptedapermanentconstitutionanditnowentereduponacourseofslowandrelativelypeacefulprogress。
Intherepublicstothenorthwardstrugglesbetweenclericalsandradicalscausedsharp，abruptalternationsingovernment。InEcuadorthehostilitybetweenclericalsandradicalswasallthemorebitterbecauseoftherivalryofthetwochieftowns，GuayaquiltheseaportandQuitothecapital，eachofwhichshelteredafaction。NosoonerthereforehadGarciaMorenofallenthantheradicalsofGuayaquilroseupagainsttheclericalsatQuito。Onceinpower，theyhuntedtheirenemiesdownuntilorderunderadictatorcouldberestored。ThemilitaryPresidentwhoassumedpowerin1876wastooradicaltosuittheclericalsandtooclericaltosuittheradicals。Accordinglyhisopponentsdecidedtomakethecontestthree—corneredbyfightingthedictatorandoneanother。WhenthePresidenthadbeenforcedout，aconservativetookchargeuntilpartiesofbushwhackersandmutinoussoldierswereabletoinstallamilitaryleader，whoseretentionofpowerwasbrief。In1888anotherconservative，whohadbeenabsentfromthecountrywhenelectedandwhowasanadeptinlawanddiplomacy，managedtowinsufficientsupportfromallthreefactionstoretainofficefortheconstitutionalperiod。
InColombiaafinancialcrisishadbeenapproachingeversincethepriceofcoffee，cocoa，andotherColombianproductshadfallenintheEuropeanmarkets。Thisdecreasehadcausedaseriousdiminutionintheexporttradeandhadforcedgoldandsilverpracticallyoutofcirculation。Atthesametimethevarious"states"wereincreasingtheirpowersattheexpenseofthefederalGovernment，andthecountrywasrentbyfactions。InordertogivetherepublicathoroughlycentralizedadministrationwhichwouldrestorefinancialconfidenceandbringbacktheinfluenceoftheChurchasasocialandpoliticalfactor，agenuinerevolution，whichwasstartedin1876，eventuallyputanendtobothradicalismandstates’rights。AttheoutsetRafaelNunez，theunitaryandclericalcandidateandalawyerbyprofession，wasbeatenonthefield，butatasubsequentelectionheobtainedtherequisitenumberofvotesand，in1880，assumedthepresidency。Thattheloserinwarshouldbecomethevictorinpeaceshowedthefutilityofbloodshedinsuchrevolutions。
NotuntilNunezcameintoofficeagaindidhefeelhimselfstrongenoughtouprootaltogethertheradicalismanddisunionwhichhadflourishedsince1860。IgnoringthenationalLegislature，hecalledaCongressofhisown，whichin1886framedaconstitutionthatconvertedthe"sovereignstates"into"departments，"ormereadministrativedistricts，toberuledasthenationalGovernmentsawfit。Further，thepresidentialtermwaslengthenedfromtwoyearstosix，andthenameofthecountrywaschanged，finally，to"RepublicofColombia。"TwoyearslaterthepoweroftheChurchwasstrengthenedbyaconcordatwiththePope。
Venezuelaonitsparthadundergonechangesnolessmarked。A
liberalconstitutionpromulgatedin1864hadprovidedforthereorganizationofthecountryonafederalbasis。Thenamechosenfortherepublicwas"UnitedStatesofVenezuela。"Morethanthat，ithadanticipatedMexicoandGuatemalainbeingthefirstoftheHispanicnationstowitnesstheestablishmentofapresidentialautocracyofthecontinuousandenlightenedtype。
AntonioGuzmanBlancowasthemanwhoimposeduponVenezuelaforaboutnineteenyearsaregimeofobediencetolaw，and，tosomeextent，ofmodernideasofadministrationsuchasthecountryhadneverknownbefore。Apersonofmuchversatility，hehadstudiedmedicineandlawbeforehebecameasoldierandapolitician。
Laterhedisplayedanotherkindofversatilitybylettinghenchmenholdthepresidentialofficewhileheremainedthepowerbehindthethrone。Endowedwithamasterfulwillandapronouncedtasteforminutesupervision，hehadexactlytheabilitynecessarytoruleVenezuelawiselyandwell。
Amidconsiderableoppositionhebegan，in1870，thefirstofhisthreeperiodsofadministration——theSeptennium，asitwastermed。The"sovereign"stateshegovernedthrough"sovereign"
officialsofhisownselection。Hestoppedtheplunderingoffarmsandthedraggingoflaborersofftomilitaryservice。HeestablishedinVenezuelaanexcellentmonetarysystem。GreatsumswereexpendedintheerectionofpublicandprivatebuildingsandintheembellishmentofCaracas。Europeancapitalandimmigrationwereencouragedtoventureintoacountryhithertosotornbychronicdisorderastodeprivebothlaborandpropertyofallguarantees。Roads，railways，andtelegraphlineswereconstructed。TheministersoftheChurchwererenderedsubmissivetothecivilpower。Primaryeducationbecamealikefreeandcompulsory。Asthephrasewent，GuzmanBlanco"taughtVenezuelatoread。"Attheendofhistermofofficehewentintovoluntaryretirement。
In1879GuzmanBlancoputhimselfattheheadofamovementwhichhecalleda"revolutionofreplevin"——whichmeant，presumably，thathewasopposedtopresidential"continuism，"andinfavorofrepublicaninstitutions！Althoughaconstitutionpromulgatedin1881fixedthechiefmagistrate’stermofofficeattwoyears，thesuccesswhichGuzmanBlancohadattainedenabledhimtocontrolaffairsforfiveyears——theQuinquennium，asitwascalled。ThereuponheprocuredhisappointmenttoadiplomaticpostinEurope;butthepopulardemandforhispresencewastoostrongforhimtoremainaway。In1886hewaselectedbyacclamation。Heheldofficetwoyearsmoreandthen，findingthathisinfluencehadwaned，heleftVenezuelaforgood。Whateverhisfaultsinotherrespects，GuzmanBlanco——beitsaidtohiscredit——triedtodestroythepestofperiodicalrevolutionsinhiscountry。Thankstohisvigoroussuppressionoftheseuprisings，someyearsofatleastcomparativesecurityweremadepossible。
MorethananyotherPresidentthenationhadeverhad，hewasentitledtothedistinctionofhavingbeenabenefactor，ifnotaltogetheraregenerator，ofhisnativeland。
CHAPTERVIII。"ONTHEMARGINOFINTERNATIONALLIFE"
Duringtheperiodfrom1889to1907twoincidentsrevealedthestandingthattherepublicsofHispanicAmericahadnowacquiredintheworldatlarge。In1889atWashington，andlaterintheirowncapitalcities，theymetwiththeUnitedStatesincouncil。
In1899，andagainin1907，theyjoinedtheirgreatnorthernneighborandthenationsofEuropeandAsiaatTheHaguefordeliberationonmutualconcerns，andtheywereadmittedtoaninternationalfellowshipandcooperationfarbeyondamererecognitionoftheirindependenceandaformalinterchangeofdiplomatsandconsuls。
SinceattemptsoftheHispaniccountriesthemselvestorealizetheaimsofBolivarincallingtheCongressatPanamahadfailed，theUnitedStatesnowundertooktocallintoexistenceasortofinter—AmericanCongress。Insteadofbeingmerelyasupporter，thegreatrepublicofthenorthhadresolvedtobecomethedirectorofthemovementforgreatersolidarityinthoughtandaction。BylinkinguptheconcernsoftheHispanicnationswithitsowndestiniesitwouldassertnotsomuchitspositionasguardianoftheMonroeDoctrineasitsheadship，ifnotitsactualdominance，intheNewWorld，andwouldsowidentheboundsofitspoliticalandcommercialinfluence—atendencyknownas"imperialism。"
Suchwastheway，atleast，inwhichtheHispanicrepublicscametoviewtheactionofthe"ColossusoftheNorth"ininvitingthemtoparticipateinanassemblagemeetingmoreorlessperiodicallyandtermedofficiallythe"InternationalConferenceofAmericanStates，"andpopularlythe"Pan—AmericanConference。"
Whetherthemistrustthesmallercountriesfeltattheoutsetwaslessenedinanydegreebytheattendanceoftheirdelegatesatthesessionsofthisconferenceremainsopentoquestion。
Althoughtheserepresentatives，incommonwiththeircolleaguesfromtheUnitedStates，assentedtoavarietyofconventionsandpassedamuchlargernumberofresolutions，theiracquiescenceseemedduetoadesiretogratifytheirpowerfulassociate，ratherthantoabeliefinthepossibleutilityofsuchmeasures。
Theexperienceoftheearliergatheringshaddemonstratedthatpoliticalissueswouldhavetobeexcludedfromconsideration。
Propositions，forexample，suchasthattoextendthebasicideaoftheMonroeDoctrineintoasortofself—denyingordinance，underwhichallthenationsofAmericashouldagreetoabstainthereafterfromacquiringanypartofoneanother’sterritorybyconquest，andtoadopt，also，theprincipleofcompulsoryarbitration，provedimpossibleofacceptance。Accordingly，fromthattimeonwardthematterstreatedbytheConferencedealtforthemostpartwithinnocuous，thoughoftenpraiseworthy，projectsforbringingtheUnitedStatesanditssisterrepublicsintoclosercommercial，industrial，andintellectualrelations。
Thegatheringitself，ontheotherhand，becametoalargeextentafiesta，afestiveoccasionforthedisplayofsocialamenities。
MuchastheHispanicAmericansmissedtheirfavoritetopicofpolitics，theyfoundconsolationinentertainingthedistinguishedforeignvisitorswiththegenialcourtesyandgeneroushospitalityforwhichtheyarefamous。Asoneoftheirperiodicalslaterexpressedit，sinceadiscussionofpoliticswastabooed，itwerebettertodevotethesessionsoftheConferencetotalkingaboutmusicandlyricpoetry！Atallevents，asfarastheoutcomewasconcerned，theirnationallegislaturesratifiedcomparativelyfewoftheconventions。
AmongtheHispanicnationsofAmericaonlyMexicotookpartintheFirstConferenceatTheHague。Practicallyallofthemwererepresentedatthesecond。Theappearanceoftheirdelegatesattheseaugustassemblagesofthepowersofearthwasviewedforawhilewithmixedfeelings。TheattitudeoftheGreatPowerstowardsthemresembledthatofparentsoftheoldregime：
childrenattheinternationaltableshouldbe"seenandnotheard。"Asamatteroffact，theHispanicAmericanswerebothseenandheard——especiallythelatter！TheywereabletoshowtheEuropeansthat，eveniftheydidhappentocomefromrelativelyweakstates，theypossessedaskillfulintelligence，abreadthofknowledge，acapacityforexpression，andaconsciousnessofnationalcharacter，whichwouldnotallowthemsimplytoplay"ManFriday"toaninternationalCrusoe。Thepresidentofthesecondconference，indeed，confessedthattheyhadbeena"revelation"tohim。
Hence，astimewenton，theprogressandpossibilitiesoftherepublicsofHispanicAmericacametobeappreciatedmoreandmorebytheworldatlarge。GraduallypeoplebegantorealizethatthecountriessouthoftheUnitedStateswerenotmerelyanindistinguishableblockonthemap，tobereferredtovaguelyas"CentralandSouthAmerica"oras"LatinAmerica。"Thereadingpublicatleastknewthatthesecountrieswerequitedifferentfromoneanother，bothinachievementsandinprospects。
Yetthefactremainsthat，despitetheiractivepartintheseAmericanandEuropeanconferences，theHispaniccountriesoftheNewWorlddidnotreceivetherecognitionwhichtheyfeltwastheirdue。TheirnationalassociatesintheEuropeangatheringsweredisinclinedtoadmitthatthepossessionofindependenceandsovereigntyentitledthemtoequalrepresentationoninternationalcouncilboards。Toagreaterorlessdegree，therefore，theycontinuedtostayintheborderlandwherenooneeitheraffirmedordeniedtheirindividuality。ToquotethephraseofanHispanicAmerican，theystood"onthemarginofinternationallife。"Howfartheymightpassbeyonditintothefullprivilegesofrecognitionandassociationonequalterms，woulddependuponthereadinesswithwhichtheycouldatonefortheerrorsorrecoverfromthemisfortunesofthepast，andupontheirpowertoattainstability，prosperity，strength，andresponsibility。
CertainoftheHispanicrepublics，however，werenotallowedtoremainaloneontheirsideof"themarginofinternationallife。"
ThoughnothingsoextremeastheearlierFrenchinterventiontookplace，foreignnationswerenotatallaversetocrossingoverthemarginallineandteachingthemwhatafailuretocomplywithinternationalobligationsmeant。Theperiodfrom1889to1907，therefore，ischaracterizedalsobyinterferenceonthepartofEuropeanpowers，andbyinterpositiononthepartoftheUnitedStates，intheaffairsofcountriesinandaroundtheCaribbeanSea。BecauseoftheactiontakenbytheUnitedStatestwomorerepublics——CubaandPanama——cameintobeing，thusincreasingthenumberofpoliticaloffshootsfromSpaininAmericatoeighteen。
AnotherresultofthisinterpositionwasthecreationofwhatweresubstantiallyAmericanprotectorates。HeretheUnitedStatesdidnotdeprivethecountriesconcernedoftheirindependenceandsovereignty，butsubjectedthemtoakindofguardianshiportutelage，sofarasitthoughtneedfultoinsurestability，solvency，health，andwelfareingeneral。ForemostinthenortherngroupofHispanicnations，Mexico，undertheguidanceofDiaz，marchedsteadilyonward。Peace，order，andlaw;anincreasingpopulation;internalwealthandwell—being;aflourishingindustryandcommerce;suitablecareforthingsmentalaswellasmaterial;therespectandconfidenceofforeigners——thesewereblessingswhichthecountryhadhithertoneverbeheld。TheMexicans，onceinanarchyandenmitycreatedbymilitaristsandclericals，cametoknowoneanotherinfriendship，andarrivedatsomethinglikeanationalconsciousness。
In1889therewasheldthefirstconferenceoneducationalproblemswhichtherepublichadeverhad。Threeyearslateraminingcodewasdrawnupwhichmadeownershipinviolableonpaymentoflawfuldues，removeduncertaintiesofoperation，andstimulatedtheindustryinaremarkablefashion。Farlessbeneficialinthelongrunwasalawenactedin1894。Insteadofgrantingalegaltitletolandsheldbyprescriptiverightsthroughanoccupationofmanyyears，itmadesuchpropertypartofthepublicdomain，whichmightbeacquired，likeaminingclaim，byanyonewhocouldsecureagrantofitfromtheGovernment。Thoughhailedatthetimeasapieceofconstructivelegislation，itsunfortunateeffectwastoenablelargelandownerswhowishedtoincreasetheirpossessionstooustpoorcultivatorsofthesoilfromtheirhumbleholdings。Ontheotherhand，underthestatesmanlikemanagementofJoseYvesLimantour，theMinisterofFinance，themonetarysituationathomeandabroadwasstrengthenedbeyondmeasure，andbankinginterestswerepromotedaccordingly。Further，anactabolishingthealcabala，avexatiousinternalrevenuetax，gaveagreatstimulustofreedomofcommercethroughoutthecountry。Inordertoinsureacontinuanceofthenewregime，theconstitutionwasalteredinthreeimportantrespects。Theamendmentof1890restoredtheoriginalclauseof1857，whichpermittedindefinitereelectiontothepresidency;thatof1896establishedapresidentialsuccessionincaseofavacancy，beginningwiththeMinisterofForeignAffairs;andthatof1904lengthenedthetermofthechiefmagistratefromfouryearstosixandcreatedtheofficeofVicePresident。
InCentralAmericatworepublics，GuatemalaandCostaRica，setanexcellentexamplebothbecausetheywerefreefrominternalcommotionsandbecausetheyrefrainedfrominterferenceintheaffairsoftheirneighbors。Thecontrastbetweenthesetwoquietlittlenations，undertheirlawyerPresidents，andthebellicosebutequallysmallNicaragua，Honduras，andSalvador，undertheirchieftains，militaryandjuristic，wasquiteremarkable。
Neverthelessanotherattemptatconfederationwasmade。In1895
therulerofHonduras，declaringthatreunionwasa"primordialnecessity，"invitedhisfellowpotentatesofNicaraguaandSalvadortouniteincreatingthe"GreaterRepublicofCentralAmerica"andaskedGuatemalaandCostaRicatojoin。Delegatesactuallyappearedfromallfiverepublics，attendedfiestas，gaveexpressiontopiouswishes，andwenthome！Laterstill，in1902，therespectivePresidentssigneda"conventionofpeaceandobligatoryarbitration"asameansofadjustingperpetualdisagreementsaboutpoliticsandboundaries;butnothingwasdonetocarrytheseideasintoeffect。
ThepersonagemainlyresponsibleforthesefailureswasJoseSantosZelaya，oneofthemostarrantmilitarylordletsandmeddlersthatCentralAmericahadproducedinalongtime。Since1893hehadbeendictatorofNicaragua，acountrynotonlyentangledincontinuouswranglesamongitstownsandfactions，butbowedunderanenormousburdenofdebtcreatedbyexcessiveemissionsofpapermoneyandbythecontractionofmoreorlessscandalousforeignloans。Quiteundisturbedbythefinancialsituation，Zelayapromptlysilencedlocalbickeringsanddevotedhisenergiestoalteringtheconstitutionforhispresidentialbenefitandtomakingtroubleforhisneighbors。Nordidherefrainfromdisplaysofarbitraryconductthatweresuretoprovokeforeignintervention。GreatBritain，forexample，ontwooccasionsexactedreparationatthecannon’smouthforilltreatmentofitscitizens。
ZelayawaxedwrothatthespectacleofGuatemala，oncesoactiveinrevolutionaryartsbutnowquietlymindingitsownbusiness。
In1906，therefore，alongwithpartiesofHondurans，Salvadoreans，anddisaffectedGuatemalans，hebegananinvasionofthatcountryandcontinuedoperationswithdecreasingsuccessuntil，theUnitedStatesandMexicoofferingtheirmediation，peacewassignedaboardanAmericancruiser。Then，whenCostaRicainvitedtheotherrepublicstodiscussconfederationwithinitscalmfrontiers，Zelayapreferredhisownparticularoccupationtoanysuchprocedure。Accordingly，displeasedwitharecentboundarydecision，hestartedalongwithSalvadortofightHonduras。OncemoretheUnitedStatesandMexicotenderedtheirgoodoffices，andagainaCentralAmericanconflictwasclosedaboardanAmericanwarship。AbouttheonlyrealachievementofZelayawasthesigningofatreatybywhichGreatBritainrecognizedthecompletesovereigntyofNicaraguaovertheMosquitoIndians，whosebuzzingforalargeramountoffreedomandmoretributehadbeendisturbingundulythe"repose"ofthatsmallnation！
TotheeastwardthenewrepublicofCubawasabouttobeborn。
HereapromiseofadequaterepresentationintheSpanishCortesandofalocallegislaturehadfailedtosatisfytheaspirationsofmanyofitsinhabitants。Thediscontentwasaggravatedbylaxandcorruptmethodsofadministrationaswellasbyfinancialdifficulties。SwarmsofSpanishofficialsenjoyedlargesalarieswithoutperformingdutiesofequivalentvalue。Notafewofthemhadcomeovertoenrichthemselvesatpublicexpenseandunderconditionsaltogetherscandalous。OnCuba，furthermore，wassaddledthedebtincurredbytheTenYears’War，whiletheislandcontinuedtobealucrativemarketforSpanishgoodswithoutobtainingfromSpainacorrespondingadvantageforitsownproducts。
Astheinsistenceuponaremovaloftheseabusesanduponagrantofgenuineself—governmentbecamesteadilymoreclamorous，threepoliticalgroupsappeared。TheConstitutionalUnionists，or"Austrianizers，"astheyweredubbedbecauseoftheiravowedloyaltytotheroyalhouseofBourbon—Hapsburg，weremadeupoftheSpanishandconservativeelementsandrepresentedthelargeeconomicinterestsandtheChurch。TheLiberals，or"Autonomists，"desiredsuchreformsintheadministrationaswouldassuretheexerciseofself—governmentandyetpreservethebondwiththemothercountry。Ontheotherhand，theRadicals，or"Nationalists"——thepartyof"CubaFree"——wouldbesatisfiedwithnothingshortofabsoluteindependence。Allthesedifferencesofopinionweresharpenedbytheactivitiesofasensationalpress。
>Fromabout1890onwardthemovementtowardindependencegatheredtremendousstrength，especiallywhentheCubansfoundpopularsentimentintheUnitedStatessofavorabletoit。ExcitementrosestillhigherwhentheSpanishGovernmentproposedtobestowalargermeasureofautonomy。When，however，theCortesdecideduponlessliberalarrangements，theAutonomistsdeclaredthattheyhadbeendeceived，andtheNationalistsdenouncedtheutterunreliabilityofSpanishpromises。Eveniftheconcessionshadbeengenerous，theresultprobablywouldhavebeenthesame，forbythistimetheplottosetCubafreehadbecomesowidespread，bothintheislanditselfandamongtherefugeesintheUnitedStates，thattheinevitablestrugglecouldnothavebeendeferred。
In1895therevolutionbrokeout。Thewhites，headedbyMaximoGomez，andthenegroesandmulattoesbytheirchieftain，AntonioMaceo，bothofwhomhaddonevaliantserviceintheearlierwar，starteduponacampaignofdeliberateterrorism。Thistimetheywereresolvedtowinatanycost。Spurningeveryofferofconciliation，theyburned，ravaged，andlaidwaste，spreaddesolationalongtheirpathway，andreducedthousandstoabjectpovertyandwant。
ThentheSpanishGovernmentcametotheconclusionthatnothingbutthemostrigoroussortofreprisalswouldchecktheexcessesoftherebels。In1896itcommissionedValerianoWeyler，anofficerwhopersonifiedferocity，toputdowntherebellion。IftheinsurgentshadfanciedthattheconciliatoryspirithithertodisplayedbytheSpaniardswasduetoirresolutionorweakness，theyfoundthatthesewerenotthequalitiesoftheirnewopponent。Weyler，insteadoftryingtosuppresstherebellionbyhurryingdetachmentsoftroopsfirsttoonespotandthentoanotherinpursuitofenemiesaccustomedtoguerrillatactics，determinedtostampitoutprovincebyprovince。Tothisendheplantedhisarmyfirmlyinoneparticulararea，prohibitedtheplantingorharvestingofcropsthere，andorderedtheinhabitantstoassembleincampswhichtheywerenotpermittedtoleaveonanypretextwhatever。Thiswashispolicyof"reconcentration。"Deficientfoodsupply，lackofsanitaryprecautions，andabsenceofmoralsafeguardsmadeconditionsoflifeinthesecampsappalling。Deathwasawelcomerelief。
Reconcentration，combinedwithexecutionsanddeportations，couldhavebutoneresult——the"pacification"ofCubabyconvertingitintoadesert。
NotintheUnitedStatesalonebutinSpainitselfthestoryofthesedrasticmeasureskindledpopularindignationtosuchanextentthat，in1897，theGovernmentwasforcedtorecalltheferociousWeylerandtosendoveranewGovernorandCaptainGeneral，withinstructionstoabandontheworstfeaturesofhispredecessor’spolicyandtoestablishacompletesystemofautonomyinbothCubaandPortoRico。Feelingassured，however，thatanallywasathandwhowouldsoonmaketheirindependencecertain，theCubanpatriotsflatlyrejectedtheseovertures。Intheirexpectationstheywerenotmistaken。Byitsarmedintervention，inthefollowingyeartheUnitedStatesacquiredPortoRicoforitselfandcompelledSpaintowithdrawfromCuba。*
*See"ThePathofEmpire"，byCarlRussellFish（in"TheChroniclesofAmerica"）。
Theislandthenbecamearepublic，subjectonlytosuchlimitationsonitsfreedomofactionasitsbigguardianmightseefittoimpose。NotonlywasCubaplacedunderAmericanrulefrom1899to1902，butithadtoinsertintheConstitutionof1901certainclausesthatcouldnotfailtobegallingtoCubanpride。Amongthemtwowereofspecialsignificance。OneimposedlimitationsonthefinancialpowersoftheGovernmentofthenewnation，andtheotherauthorizedtheUnitedStates，atitsdiscretion，tointerveneinCubanaffairsforthepurposeofmaintainingpublicorder。TheCubans，itwouldseem，hadexchangedadependenceonSpainforarestrictedindependencemeasuredbythewillofacountryinfinitelystronger。
Cubabeganitslifeasarepublicin1902，underagovernmentforwhichaformbothunitaryandfederalhadbeenprovided。TomasEstradaPalma，thefirstPresidentandlongtheheadoftheCubanjuntaintheUnitedStates，showedhimselfdisposedfromtheoutsettocontinuethebeneficialreformsinadministrationwhichhadbeenintroducedunderAmericanrule。Prudentandconciliatoryintemperament，hetriedtodispelasbesthecouldthebitterrecollectionsofthewarandtorepairitsravages。Inthispolicyhewasupheldbytheconservativeclass，orModerates。
Theiropponents，theLiberals，dominatedbymenofradicaltendencies，wereeagertoasserttheright，towhichtheythoughtCubaentitledasanindependentsovereignnation，tomakepossiblemistakesandcorrectthemwithouthavingtheUnitedStatesforeverholdingtheferuleoftheschoolmasteroverit。
Theywerewellaware，however，thattheywerenotatlibertytohavetheircountrypassthroughthetempestuousexperiencewhichhadbeenthelotofsomanyHispanicrepublics。Theycouldventanaturalangeranddisappointment，nevertheless，onthePresidentandhissupporters。RatherthancontinuetobegovernedbyCubansnottotheirliking，theywerewillingtobringaboutarenewalofAmericanrule。InthisrespectthewishesoftheRadicalsweresoongratified。HardlyhadEstradaPalma，in1906，assumedofficeforasecondtime，whenpartiesofmalcontents，declaringthathehadsecuredhisreelectionbyfraudulentmeans，roseupinarmsanddemandedthatheannulthevoteandholdafairelection。ThePresidentacceptedthechallengeandwagedafutileconflict，andagaintheUnitedStatesintervened。UpontheresignationofEstradaPalma，anAmericanGovernorwasagaininstalled，andCubawastoldinunmistakablefashionthatthenextinterventionmightbepermanent。
LessdrasticbutquiteaseffectualamethodofassuringorderandregularityinadministrationwastheactiontakenbytheUnitedStatesinanotherCaribbeanisland。AlittlecountryliketheDominicanRepublic，inwhichfewPresidentsmanagedtoretaintheirofficesfortermsfixedbychangeableconstitutions，couldnotresistthetemptationtoriditselfofarulerwhohadheldpowerfornearlyaquarterofacentury。Afterhehadbeendisposedofbyassassinationin1899，thegovernmentofhissuccessorundertooktorepudiateadepreciatedpapercurrencybyorderingthecustomsdutiestobepaidinspecie;anditalsotriedtopreventtheconsulofanaggrievedforeignnationfromattachingcertainrevenuesassecurityforthepaymentofthearrearsofanindemnity。Thereupon，in1905，thePresidentoftheUnitedStatesenteredintoanarrangementwiththeDominicanGovernmentwhereby，inreturnforapledgefromtheformercountrytoguaranteetheterritorialintegrityoftherepublicandanagreementtoadjustallofitsexternalobligationsofapecuniarysort，Americanofficialsweretotakechargeofthecustomhousesendapportionthereceiptsfromthatsourceinsuchamannerastosatisfydomesticneedsandpayforeigncreditors。*
*See"ThePathofEmpire"，byCarlRussellFish（in"TheChroniclesofAmerica"）。
CHAPTERIX。THEREPUBLICSOFSOUTHAMERICA
EvensohugeandconservativeacountryasBrazilcouldnotstartoutuponthepathwayofrepublicanfreedomwithoutsomeunrest;
butthepoliticalexperiencegainedunderaregimeoflimitedmonarchyhadasteadyingeffect。Besides，theRevolutionof1889
hadbeeneffectedbyacombinationofarmyofficersandcivilianenthusiastswhoknewthattheprovinceswerereadyforaradicalchangeintheformofgovernment，butwhowerewiseenoughtomakehasteslowly。Ifamottocouldmeananything，theadoptionofthepositivistdevice，"OrderandProgress，"displayedonthenationalflagseemedahappyaugury。
Theconstitutionpromulgatedin1891setupafederalunionbroadlysimilartothatoftheUnitedStates，exceptthatthepowersofthegeneralGovernmentweresomewhatmorerestricted。
Qualificationsforthesuffrageweredirectlyfixedinthefundamentallawitself，buttheeducationaltestsimposedexcludedthegreatbulkofthepopulationfromtherighttovote。
Intheconstitution，also，ChurchandStateweredeclaredabsolutelyseparate，andcivilmarriagewasprescribed。
WelladaptedastheconstitutionwastotheparticularneedsofBrazil，theGovernmenterectedunderithadtocontendawhilewithpoliticaldisturbances。ThoughconflictsoccurredbetweenthepresidentandtheCongress，betweenthefederalauthorityandtheStates，andbetweentheciviladministrationandnavalandmilitaryofficials，noneweresoconstant，soprolonged，orsodisastrousasintheSpanishAmericanrepublics。Evenwhenelectedbytheconnivanceofgovernmentofficials，thechiefmagistrategovernedinaccordancewithrepublicanforms。
Presidentialpower，infact，wasrestrainedbothbythehugesizeofthecountryandbythespiritoflocalautonomyupheldbytheStates。
EversincethewarwithParaguaythefinancialcreditofBrazilhadbeenimpaired。Thechronicdeficitinthetreasuryhadbeenfurtherincreasedbyaseriousloweringintherateofexchange，whichwasduetoanexcessiveissueofpapermoney。InordertosavethenationfrombankruptcyManoelFerrazdeCamposSalles，adistinguishedjurist，wascommissionedtoeffectanadjustmentwiththeBritishcreditors。Asaresultofhisnegotiationsa"fundingloan"wasobtained，inreturnforwhichanequivalentamountinpapermoneywastobeturnedoverforcancellationatafixedrateofexchange。Underthisarrangementdepreciationceasedforawhileandthefinancialoutlookbecamebrighter。
TheelectionofCamposSallestothepresidencyin1898，asarewardforhissuccess，wasaccompaniedbytheriseofdefinitepoliticalparties。AmongthemtheRadicalsorProgressistsfavoredapolicyofcentralizationundermilitaryauspicesandexhibitedcertainantiforeigntendencies。TheModeratesorRepublicans，onthecontrary，withCamposSallesastheircandidate，declaredfortheexistingconstitutionandadvocatedagradualadoptionofsuchreformsasreasonandtimemightsuggest。Whenthelatterpartywontheelection，confidenceinthestabilityofBrazilreturned。
AsifUruguayhadnotalreadysufferedenoughfrominternaldiscords，twomoreseriousconflictsdemonstratedonceagainthatthislittlecountry，inwhichpoliticalpowerhadbeenheldsubstantiallybyonepartyalonesince1865，couldnothopeforpermanentpeaceuntileithertheexcludedandapparentlyirreconcilablepartyhadbeenfinallyandutterlycrushed，or，farbetterstill，untilthetwofactionscouldmanagetoagreeuponsomesatisfactoryarrangementforrotationinoffice。Thestruggleof1897endedintheassassinationofthepresidentandinadivisionoftherepublicintotwopracticallyseparateareas，oneruledbytheColoradosatMontevideo，theotherbytheBlancos。Arenewalofcivilwarin1904seemedaltogetherpreferabletoanindefinitecontinuanceofthisdualismingovernment，evenattheriskoffrictionwithArgentina，whichwaschargedwithnothavingobservedstrictneutrality。Thissecondstrugglecametoaclosewiththedeathoftheinsurgentleader;butitcostthelivesofthousandsanddidirreparabledamagetothecommerceandindustryofthecountry。
Uruguaythenenjoyedarespitefrompartyupheavalsuntil1910，whenJoseBatlle，theable，resolute，andradical—mindedheadoftheColorados，announcedthathewouldbeacandidateforthepresidency。Ashehadheldtheofficebeforeandhadneverceasedtowieldastrongpersonalinfluenceovertheadministrationofhissuccessor，theBlancosdecidedthatnowwasthetimetoattemptoncemoretoousttheiropponentsfromthecontrolwhichtheyhadmonopolizedforhalfacentury。AccusingtheGovernmentofanunconstitutionalcentralizationofpowerintheexecutive，ofpreventingfreeelections，andofcripplingthepastoralindustriesofthecountry，theystartedarevolt，whichranabriefcourse。Batlleprovedhimselfequaltothesituationandquicklysuppressedtheinsurrection。Thoughhedidmakeawideuseofhisauthority，thePresidentrefrainedfromindulginginpoliticalpersecutionandallowedthepressallthelibertyitdesiredinsofaraswasconsistentwiththelaw。ItwasunderhisdirectionthatUruguayentereduponaremarkableseriesofexperimentsinthenationalizationofbusinessenterprises。
Further，moreorlessatthesuggestionofBattle，anewconstitutionwasratifiedbypopularvotein1917。ItprovidedforadivisionoftheexecutivepowerbetweenthePresidentandaNationalCouncilofAdministration，forbadetheelectionofadministrativeandmilitaryofficialstotheCongress，grantedtothatbodyaconsiderableincreaseofpower，andenlargedthefacilitiesforlocalself—government。Inaddition，itestablishedtheprincipleofminorityrepresentationandofsecrecyoftheballot，permittedtheCongresstoextendtherightofsuffragetowomen，anddissolvedtheunionbetweenChurchandState。Ifthetermsofthenewinstrumentarefaithfullyobserved，theoldstrugglebetweenBlancosandColoradoswillhavebeenbroughtdefinitelytoaclose。
Paraguaylapsedafter1898intotheearliersinsofSpanishAmerica。UponacomparativelyplacidpresidentialregimefollowedaseriesofbarrackuprisingsorattacksbyCongressontheexecutive。Theconstitutionbecameafarce。Nolonger，tobesure，anabodeofArcadianseclusionasincolonialtimes，orasortofterritorialcobwebfromthecenterofwhichaspiderlikeFranciahungmotionlessordarteduponhishaplessprey，orevenabattlegroundonwhichfanaticalwarriorsmightfightanddieatthebehestofasavageLopez，Paraguaynowtookontheaspectofanarenainwhichpettypoliticalgamecocksmighttryouttheirspurs。Happily，theopposingpartiesspenttheirenergiesinhighwordsandvehementgesturesratherthaninblowsandbloodshed。Thecreditofthecountrysanklowerandloweruntilitspapermoneystoodatadiscountofseveralhundredpercentcomparedwithgold。
EuropeanbankershadbeguntoviewthefinancialfutureofArgentinaalsowithgreatalarm。In1890themadcareeringofprivatespeculationandpublicexpenditurealongtheroseatepathwayoflimitlesscreditreachedaveritable"crisisofprogress。"Afrightfulpanicensued。Papermoneyfelltolessthanaquarterofitsformervalueingold。Manyafirmbecamebankrupt，andmanyafortuneshriveled。Asisusualinsuchcases，theGovernmenthadtoshouldertheblame。Afour—dayrevolutionbrokeoutinBuenosAires，andthePresidentbecamethescapegoat;butthepanicwenton，nevertheless，untilgoldstoodatnearlyfivetoone。Mostofthebankssuspendedpayment;
thenationaldebtunderwentahugeincrease;andimmigrationpracticallyceased。
By1895，however，thecountryhadmoreorlessresumeditsnormalcondition。Anewcensusshowedthatthepopulationhadrisentofourmillion，aboutasixthofwhomresidedinthecapital。Theimportancewhichagriculturehadattainedwasattestedbytheestablishmentofaseparateministryinthepresidentialcabinet。
Industry，too，madesuchrapidstridesatthistimethatorganizedlaborbegantotakeahandinpolitics。Theshort—lived"revolution"of1905，forexample，wasnotprimarilytheworkofpoliticiansbutofstrikersorganizedintoaworkingmen’sfederation。Forthreemonthscivilguaranteesweresuspended，andbyaso—called"lawofresidence，"enactedsomeyearsbeforeandnowputintoeffect，theGovernmentwasauthorizedtoexpelsummarilyanyforeignerguiltyoffomentingstrikesorofdisturbingpublicorderinanyotherfashion。
Politicalagitationsoonassumedanewform。SincetheAutonomist—Nationalpartyhadbeenincontrolforthirtyyearsormore，itseemedtotheCivic—Nationalists，nowknownasRepublicans，totheAutonomistsproper，andtovariousotherfactions，thattheyoughttodosomethingtobreaktheholdofthatpowerfulorganization。Accordinglyin1906thePresident，supportedbyacoalitionofthesefactions，startedwhatwastermedan"upward—downwardrevolution"——inotherwords，aseriesofinterventionsbywhichlocalgovernorsandmembersoflegislaturessuspectedofAutonomist—NationalleaningsweretobereplacedbyindividualswhoenjoyedtheconfidenceoftheAdministration。Pretextsforsuchactionwerenothardtofindunderthetermsoftheconstitution;buttheirpoliticalinterestssufferedsomuchintheeffortthatthepromotershadtoabandonit。
OwingtopersistentobstructiononthepartofCongress，whichtooktheformofarefusaleithertosanctionhisappointmentsortoapprovethebudget，thePresidentsuspendedthesessionsofthatbodyin1908anddecreedacontinuanceoftheestimatesfortheprecedingyear。Theantagonismbetweenthechiefexecutiveandthelegislaturebecamesoviolentthat，ifhisopponentshadnotbeensplitupintofactions，civilwarmighthaveensuedinArgentina。
Toremedyasituationmadeworsebytheabsence——usualinmostoftheHispanicrepublics——ofasecretballotandbytherefusalofpoliticalmalcontentstotakepartinelections，votingwasmadebothobligatoryandsecretin1911，andtheprincipleofminorityrepresentationwasintroduced。Legislationofthissortwasdesignedtocheckbriberyandintimidationandtoenabletheradical—mindedtodotheirdutyatthepolls。Itseffectwasshownfiveyearslater，whenthesecretballotwasusedsubstantiallyforthefirsttime。TheradicalswonboththepresidencyandamajorityintheCongress。
OneofthesecretsoftheprosperityofArgentina，asofBrazil，inrecentyearshasbeenitsabstentionfromwarlikeventuresbeyonditsbordersanditsendeavortoadjustboundaryconflictsbyarbitration。EvenwhenitsattitudetowarditshugeneighborhadbecomeembitteredinconsequenceofaboundarydecisionrenderedbythePresidentoftheUnitedStatesin1895，itabatednoneofitsenthusiasmfortheprincipleofapeacefulsettlementofinternationaldisputes。Fouryearslater，inatreatywithUruguay，theso—called"ArgentineFormula"appeared。Toquoteitslanguage："Thecontractingpartiesagreetosubmittoarbitrationallquestionsofanynaturewhichmayarisebetweenthem，providedtheydonotaffectprovisionsoftheconstitutionofeitherstate，andcannotbeadjustedbydirectnegotiation。"ThisFormulawassoonputtothetestinaseriousdisputewithChile。
IntheTreatyof1881，inpartitioningPatagonia，thecrestoftheAndeshadbeenassumedtobethetruecontinentalwatershedbetweentheAtlanticandthePacificandhencewasmadetheboundarylinebetweenArgentinaandChile。TheentireAtlanticcoastwastobelongtoArgentina，thePacificcoasttoChile;theislandofTierradelFuegowastobedividedbetweenthem。AtthesametimetheStraitofMagellanwasdeclaredaneutralwaterway，opentotheshipsofallnations。Erelong，however，itwasascertainedthatthecrestoftheAndesdidnotactuallycoincidewiththecontinentaldivide。ThereuponArgentinainsistedthattheboundarylineshouldbemadetorunalongthecrest，whileChiledemandedthatitbetracedalongthewatershed。Sincethemountainousareaconcernedwasoflittlevalue，thequestionatbottomwassimplyoneofpowerandprestigebetweenrivalstates。
Asthedisputewaxedwarmer，anoisypressandpopulaceclamoredforwar。TheGovernmentsofthetwonationsspentlargesumsinincreasingtheirarmaments;andArgentina，inimitationofitswesternneighbor，mademilitaryservicecompulsory。But，astheconvictiongraduallyspreadthatastrugglewouldleavethevictorasprostrateasthevanquished，wisercounselsprevailed。
In1899，accordingly，thematterwasreferredtotheKingofGreatBritainfordecision。Thoughtheawardwasacompromise，Chilewastheactualgainerinterritory。
Bytheirtreatiesof1902bothrepublicsdeclaredtheirintentiontoupholdtheprincipleofarbitrationandtorefrainfrominterferingineachother’saffairsalongtheirrespectivecoasts。Theyalsoagreeduponalimitationofarmaments——thesoleexampleonrecordofarealizationofthepurposeoftheFirstHagueConference。Tocommemoratestillfurthertheirinternationalaccord，in1904theyerectedonthesummitoftheUspallataPass，overwhichSanMartinhadcrossedwithhisarmyofliberationin1817，abronzestatueofChristtheRedeemer。
There，amidthesnow—cappedpeaksofthegiantAndes，onemayreadinscribeduponthepedestal："SoonershallthesemountainscrumbletodustthanArgentinosandChileansbreakthepeacewhichatthefeetofChristtheRedeemertheyhavesworntomaintain！"Norhasthepeacebeenbroken。
ThoughhostilitieswithArgentinahadthusbeenaverted，Chilehadexperiencedwithinitsownfrontiersthemostseriousrevolutionithadknowninsixtyyears。Thestrugglewasnotoneofpartisanchieftainsorpoliticalgroupsbutagenuinecontesttodeterminewhichoftwotheoriesofgovernmentshouldprevail——thepresidentialortheparliamentary，apresidentialautocracywiththespreadofrealdemocracyoracongressionaloligarchybasedontheexistingorder。Thesincerityandpublicspiritofbothcontestantshelpedtolenddignitytotheconflict。
JoseManuelBalmaceda，amanofmarkedability，whobecamePresidentin1886，haddevotedmuchofhispoliticallifetourginganenlargementoftheexecutivepower，agreaterfreedomtomunicipalitiesinthemanagementoftheirlocalaffairs，andabroadeningofthesuffrage。HehadevenadvocatedaseparationofChurchandState。MostoftheseproposalssoconservativealandasChilewasnotpreparedtoaccept。Thoughcivilmarriagewasauthorizedandecclesiasticalinfluencewaslessenedinotherrespects，theChurchstoodfirm。DuringhisadministrationBalmacedaintroducedmanyreforms，bothmaterialandeducational。
Hegaveagreatimpetustotheconstructionofpublicworks，enhancedthenationalcreditbyafavorableconversionofthepublicdebt，fosteredimmigration，anddevotedespecialattentiontotheestablishmentofsecondaryschools。ExcellentastheadministrationofBalmacedahadbeeninotherrespects，heneverthelessfailedtocombinetheliberalfactionsintoapartywillingtosupporttheplansofreformwhichhehadsteadilyfavored。TheparliamentarysystemmadeCabinetsaltogetherunstable，aspoliticalgroupsinthelowerhouseoftheCongressalternatelycoheredandfellapart。Thisdefect，Balmacedathought，shouldbecorrectedbymakingthemembersofhisofficialfamilyindependentofthelegislativebranch。TheCouncilofState，asomewhatanomalousbodyplacedbetweenthePresidentandCabinetontheonesideandtheCongressontheother，wasanadditionalobstructiontoasmooth—runningadministration。Forithewouldsubstituteatribunalchargedwiththedutyofresolvingconflictsbetweenthetwochiefbranchesofgovernment。Balmacedabelieved，also，thatgreaterlibertyshouldbegiventothepressandthatexistingtaxesshouldbealteredasrarelyaspossible。Onitsside，theCongressfeltthatthePresidentwastryingtoestablishadictatorshipandtoreplacetheunitarysystembyafederalunion，theprobableweaknessofwhichwouldenablehimtoretainhispowermoresecurely。
TowardthecloseofhisterminJanuary，1891，whentheLiberalsdeclinedtosupporthiscandidateforthepresidency，Balmaceda，furiousattheoppositionwhichhehadencountered，tookmattersintohisownhands。SincetheCongressrefusedtopasstheappropriationbills，hedeclaredthatbodydissolvedandproceededtolevythetaxesbydecree。TothisarbitraryandaltogetherunconstitutionalperformancetheCongressretortedbydeclaringthePresidentdeposed。Civilwarbrokeoutforthwith，andastrangespectaclepresenteditself。Thetwochiefcities，SantiagoandValparaiso，andmostofthearmybackedBalmaceda，whereasthecountrydistricts，especiallyinthenorth，andpracticallyallthenavyupheldtheCongress。
Thesewere，indeed，darkdaysforChile。DuringastruggleofabouteightmonthsthenationsufferedmorethanithaddoneinyearsofwarfarewithPeruandBolivia。ThoughthebulkofthearmystoodbyBalmaceda，theCongresswasabletoraiseandorganizeamuchstrongerfightingforceunderaPrussiandrillmaster。Thetideofbattleturned;SantiagoandValparaisocapitulated;andthepresidentialcausewaslost。Balmaceda，whohadtakenrefugeintheArgentinalegation，committedsuicide。
ButtheBalmacedists，whowereincludedinageneralamnesty，stillmaintainedthemselvesasapartytoadvocateinapeacefulfashiontheprinciplesoftheirfallenleader。
Chilehaditsreputationforstabilitywelltestedin1910whentheexecutivechangedfourtimeswithouttheslightestpoliticaldisturbance。Accordingtotheconstitution，theofficerwhotakestheplaceofthePresidentincaseofthelatter’sdeathordisability，thoughvestedwithfullauthority，hasthetitleofVicePresidentonly。ItsohappenedthatafterthedeathofthePresidenttwomembersoftheCabinetinsuccessionheldthevicepresidency，andtheywerefollowedbythechiefmagistrate，whowasdulyelectedandinstalledatthecloseoftheyear。In1915，forthefirsttimesincetheirleaderhadcommittedsuicide，oneofthefollowersofBalmacedawaschosenPresident——byastrangecoalitionofLiberal—Democrats，orBalmacedists，Conservatives，andNationalists，overthecandidateoftheRadicals，Liberals，andDemocrats。Themaintenanceoftheparliamentarysystem，however，continuedtoproducefrequentalterationsinthepersonneloftheCabinet。
Initsforeignrelations，apartfromtheadjustmentreachedwithArgentina，ChilemanagedtosettlethedifficultieswithBoliviaarisingoutoftheWarofthePacific。Bythetermsoftreatiesconcludedin1895and1905，theregiontentativelytransferredbythearmisticeof1884wascededoutrighttoChileinreturnforaseaportandanarrowrightofwaytoitthroughtheformerPeruvianprovinceofTarapaca。WithPeru，Chilewasnotsofortunate。ThoughthetensionovertheultimatedisposaloftheTacnaandAricaquestionwassomewhatreduced，itwasfarfrombeingremoved。Chileabsolutelyrefusedtosubmitthemattertoarbitration，onthegroundthatsuchaprocedurecouldnotproperlybeappliedtoaquestionarisingoutofawarthathadtakenplacesomanyyearsbefore。Chiledidnotwishtogivetheregionup，lestbysodoingitmightexposeTarapacatoapossibleattackfromPeru。Theinvestmentoflargeamountsofforeigncapitalintheexploitationofthedepositsofnitrateofsodahadmadethatprovinceeconomicallyveryvaluable，andtheexporttaxleviedontheproductwasthechiefsourceofthenationalrevenue。ThesewereallpotentreasonswhyChilewantedtokeepitsholdonTacnaandArica。Besides，possessionwasninepointsinthelaw！
Ontheotherhand，theoriginalplanofhavingthequestiondecidedbyavoteoftheinhabitantsoftheprovincesconcernedwasnotcarriedintoeffect，partlybecausebothclaimantscherishedaconvictionthatwhicheverlosttheelectionwoulddenyitsvalidity，andpartlybecausetheycouldnotagreeupontheprecisemethodofholdingit。Chilesuggestedthattheinternationalcommissionwhichwasselectedtotakechargeoftheplebiscite，andwhichwascomposedofaChilean，aPeruvian，andaneutral，shouldbepresidedoverbytheChileanmemberasrepresentativeofthecountryactuallyinpossession，whereasPeruinsistedthattheneutralshouldactaschairman。ChileproposedalsothatChileans，Peruvians，andforeignersresidentintheareasixmonthsbeforethedateoftheelectionsshouldvote，providedthattheyhadtherighttodosounderthetermsoftheconstitutionsofbothstates。Peru，onitspart，objectedtothelengthofresidence，andwishedtolimitcarefullythenumberofChileanvoters，toexcludeforeignersaltogetherfromtheelection，andtodisregardqualificationsforthesuffragewhichrequiredanabilitytoreadandwrite。Bothcountries，moreover，appearedtohavealurkingsuspicionthatinanyeventtheotherwouldtrytosecureamajorityatthepollsbysupplyingarequisitenumberofvotersdrawnfromtheirrespectivecitizenrywhowerenotordinarilyresidentinTacnaandArica！Unabletoovercomethedeadlock，ChileandPeruagreedin1913topostponethesettlementfortwentyyearslonger。Attheexpirationofthisperiod，whenChilewouldhaveheldtheprovincesforhalfacentury，thequestionshouldbefinallyadjustedonbasesmutuallysatisfactory。Officiallyamicablerelationswerethenrestored。
WhilethepoliticalsituationinBoliviaremainedstable，somuchcouldnotbesaidofthatinPeruandEcuador。Ifthetroublesintheformerweremoreorlessmilitary，apersistenceoftheconflictbetweenclericalsandradicalscharacterizedthecommotionsinthelatter，becauseofcertainliberalprovisionsintheConstitutionof1907。Peru，ontheotherhand，in1915
guaranteeditspeopletheenjoymentofreligiousliberty。
NexttotheTacnaandAricaquestion，thedubiousboundariesofEcuadorconstitutedthemostseriousinternationalprobleminSouthAmerica。Theso—calledOrienteregion，lyingeastoftheAndesandclaimedbyPeru，Brazil，andColombia，appeareddifferentlyondifferentmaps，accordingasoneclaimantnationoranothersetforthitsowncase。Hadallthreebeensatisfied，nothingwouldhavebeenleftofEcuadorbutthestripbetweentheAndesandthePacificcoast，includingthecitiesofQuitoandGuayaquil。TheEcuadorians，therefore，werebitterlysensitiveonthesubject。
Protractednegotiationsovertheboundariesbecamealiketediousandlistless。Butthemomentthattherespectivediplomatshadagreeduponsomeknottypoint，theCongressofonelitigantoranotherwasalmostsuretorejectthedecisionandstartthecontroversyalloveragain。EvenreferenceofthemattertothearbitraljudgmentofEuropeanmonarchsproduced，sofarasEcuadorandPeruwereconcerned，riotousattacksuponthePeruvianlegationandconsulates，chargesandcounterchargesofinvasionofeachother’sterritory，andthesuspensionofdiplomaticrelations。ThoughtheUnitedStates，Argentina，andBrazilhadinterposedtowardoffanarmedconflictbetweenthetworepublicsand，in1911，hadurgedthatthedisputebesubmittedtotheHagueTribunal，nothingwouldinduceEcuadortocomply。
Colombiawasevenmoreunfortunatethanitssouthernneighbor，forinadditiontopoliticalconvulsionsitsufferedfinancialdisasterandanactualdeprivationofterritory。Strugglesamongfactions，officialinfluenceattheelections，dictatorships，andfightingbetweenthedepartmentsandthenationalGovernmentplungedthecountry，in1899，intotheworstcivilwarithadknownformanyaday。Papermoney，issuedinunlimitedamountsandgivenaforcedcirculation，madethedistressstillmoreacute。Thencamethehardestblowofall。Since1830Panama，asprovinceorstate，hadtriedmanytimestosecedefromColombia。
In1903theopportunityitsoughtbecamealtogetherfavorable。
Theparentnation，justbeginningtorecoverfromthedisastersofcivilstrife，wouldprobablybeunabletopreventanewattemptatwithdrawal。ThepeopleofPanama，ofcourse，knewhoweagertheUnitedStateswastoacquiretheregionoftheproposedCanalZone，sinceithadfailedtowinitbynegotiationwithColombia。Accordingly，iftheyweretostarta"revolution，"theyhadreasontobelievethatitwouldnotlacksupport——oratleast，connivance——fromthatquarter。
Onthe3dofNovembertheprojected"revolution"occurred，onscheduletime，andtheUnitedStatesrecognizedtheindependenceofthe"RepublicofPanama"threedayslater！Inreturnforaguaranteeofindependence，however，theUnitedStatesstipulated，intheconventionconcludedonthe18thofNovember，that，besidesauthoritytoenforcesanitaryregulationsintheCanalZone，itshouldalsohavetherightofinterventiontomaintainorderintherepublicitself。Morethanonce，indeed，afterPanamaadopteditsconstitutionin1904，electionsthreatenedtobecometumultuous;whereupontheUnitedStatessawtoitthattheypassedoffquietly。
Havingnowishtoflouttheirhugeneighbortothenorthward，theHispanicnationsatlargehastenedtoacknowledgetheindependenceofthenewrepublic，despitetheindignationthatprevailedinpressandpublicoverwhatwasregardedasanactofdespoilment。InviewoftheresentfulattitudeofColombiaandmindfulalsooftheopinionofmanyAmericansthatagrossinjusticehadbeencommitted，theUnitedStateseventuallyofferedtermsofsettlement。ItagreedtoexpressregretfortheillfeelingbetweenthetwocountrieswhichhadarisenoutofthePanamaincident，providedthatsuchexpressionweremademutual;
and，asaspeciesofindemnity，itagreedtopayforcanalrightstobeacquiredinColombianterritoryandfortheleaseofcertainislandsasnavalstations。Butneitherthetermsnortheamountofthecompensationprovedacceptable。Instead，ColombiaurgedthatthewholematterbereferredtothejudgmentofthetribunalatTheHague。
AlludingtotheusemadeofthelibertieswoninthestruggleforemancipationfromSpainbythenativelandofMiranda，Bolivar，andSucre，onthepartofthecountrywhichhadbeeninthevanguardofthefightforfreedomfromaforeignyoke，awriterofVenezuelaoncedeclaredthatithadnotelectedlegallyasinglePresident;hadnotputdemocraticideasorinstitutionsintopractice;hadlivedwhollyunderdictatorships;hadneglectedpublicinstruction;andhadsetupalargenumberofoppressivecommercialmonopolies，includingthenavigationofrivers，thecoastwisetrade，thepearlfisheries，andthesaleoftobacco，salt，sugar，liquor，matches，explosives，butter，grease，cement，shoes，meat，andflour。Exaggeratedastheindictmentisandapplicablealso，thoughinlessdegree，tosomeoftheotherbackwardcountriesofHispanicAmerica，itcontainsunfortunatelyalargemeasureoftruth。Indeed，sofarasVenezuelaitselfisconcerned，thiscriticmighthaveaddedthateverytimea"restorer，""regenerator，"or"liberator"succumbedthere，theoldcrazeforfederalismagainbrokeoutandmenacedthenationwithpiecemealdestruction。Obedient，furthermore，tothewhimsofapresidentialdespot，Venezuelaperpetratedmoreoutragesonforeignersandcreatedmoreinternationalfrictionafter1899thananyotherlandinSpanishAmericahadeverdone。
WhiletheformidableGuzmanBlancowasstillalive，thevariousPresidentsactedcautiously。Nosoonerhadhepassedawaythandisorderbrokeoutafresh。Sinceanewdictatorthoughtheneededalongertermofofficeanddiversotheradministrativeadvantages，aconstitutionincorporatingthemwasframedandpublishedinthedueandcustomarymanner。Thishadhardlygoneintooperationwhen，in1895，acontestarosewithGreatBritainabouttheboundariesbetweenVenezuelaandBritishGuiana。UnderpressurefromtheUnitedStates，however，thematterwasreferredtoarbitration，andVenezuelacameoutsubstantiallytheloser。
In1899thereappearedonthesceneapersonagecomparedwithwhomZelayawasthemerestnoviceintheartofmakingtrouble。