ThiswasCiprianoCastro，thegreatestinternationalnuisanceoftheearlytwentiethcentury。Arude，arrogant，fearless，energetic，capriciousmountaineerandcattleman，heregardedforeignersnolessthanhisowncountryfolk，itwouldseem，asobjectsforhisparticularscorn，displeasure，exploitation，oramusement，asthecasemightbe。HewasgreatlyangeredbythewayinwhichforeignersindisputewithlocalofficialsavoidedaresorttoVenezuelancourtsand——stillworse——rejectedtheirdecisionsandappealedinsteadtotheirdiplomaticrepresentativesforprotection。Hedeclaredsuchaproceduretobeanaffronttothenationaldignity。YetforeignerswereusuallycorrectinarmingthatjudgesappointedbyanarbitraryPresidentwerelittlemorethanfigureheads，incapableofdispensingjustice，evenweretheysoinclined。
　　Jealousnotonlyofhispersonalprestigebutofwhatheimagined，orpretendedtoimagine，weretherightsofasmallnation，CastrotriedthroughouttoportraythesituationinsuchalightastoinducetheotherHispanicrepublicsalsotoviewforeigninterferenceasadireperiltotheirownindependenceandsovereignty;andhefurtherendeavoredtoinvolvetheUnitedStatesinastrugglewithEuropeanpowersasameanspossiblyoftestingtheefficacyoftheMonroeDoctrineoroflayingbarebeforetheworldtheevilnatureofAmericanimperialisticdesigns。
　　Bytheyear1901，inwhichVenezuelaadoptedanotherconstitution，therevolutionarydisturbanceshadmateriallydiminishedtherevenuesfromthecustoms。FurthermoreCastro’sregulationsexactingmilitaryserviceofallmalesbetweenfourteenandsixtyyearsofagehadfilledtheprisonstooverflowing。Manyforeignerswhohadsufferedinconsequenceresortedtomeasuresofself—defense——amongthemrepresentativesofcertainAmericanandBritishasphaltcompanieswhichwereworkingconcessionsgrantedbyCastro’spredecessors。Thoughfamiliarwithwhatcommonlyhappenstothosewhohandlepitch，theyhadnotscrupledtoaidsomeofCastro’senemies。Castroforthwithimposedonthemenormousfineswhichamountedpracticallytoaconfiscationoftheirrights。
　　WhiletheUnitedStatesandGreatBritainwereexpostulatingoverthisbehaviorofthedespot，FrancebrokeoffdiplomaticrelationswithVenezuelabecauseofCastro’srefusaleithertopayortosubmittoarbitrationcertainclaimswhichhadoriginatedinpreviousrevolutions。Germany，aggrievedinsimilarfashion，contemplatedaseizureofthecustomsuntilitsdemandsforredressweresatisfied。AndthencameItalywithlikecausesofcomplaint。Asifthesecomplicationswerenotsufficient，VenezuelacametoblowswithColombia。
　　AstheforeignpressureonCastrosteadilyincreased，LuisMariaDrago，theArgentineMinisterofForeignAffairs，formulatedin1902thedoctrinewithwhichhisnamehasbeenassociated。Itstatedinsubstancethatforceshouldneverbeemployedbetweennationsforthecollectionofcontractualdebts。Encouragedbythisapparenttokenofsupportfromasisterrepublic，Castrodefiedhisarrayofforeignadversariesmorevigorouslythanever，declaringthathemightfinditneedfultoinvadetheUnitedStates，bywayofNewOrleans，toteachitthelessonitdeserved！Butwhenheattempted，inthefollowingyear，toclosetheportsofVenezuelaasameansofbringinghisnativeantagoniststoterms，GreatBritain，Germany，andItalyseizedhiswarships，blockadedthecoast，andbombardedsomeofhisforts。ThereupontheUnitedStatesinterposedwithasuggestionthatthedisputebelaidbeforetheHagueTribunal。AlthoughCastroyielded，hedidnotfailtohaveaclauseinsertedinanew"constitution"requiringforeignerswhomightwishtoentertherepublictoshowcertificatesofgoodcharacterfromtheGovernmentsoftheirrespectivecountries。
　　TheseincidentsgavemuchfoodforthoughttoCastroaswellastohissoberercompatriots。TheEuropeanpowershaddisplayedanapparentwillingnesstohavetheUnitedStates，ifitchosetodoso，assumetheroleofaNewWorldpolicemanandfinancialguarantor。Wereittoassumetheseduties，backwardrepublicsintheCaribbeananditsvicinitywerelikelytohavetheiraffairs，internalaswellasexternal，supervisedbythebignationinordertowardoffEuropeanintervention。Atthismoment，indeed，theUnitedStateswasinterveninginPanama。TheprospectarousedinmanyHispaniccountriesthefearofa"Yankeeperil"greatereventhanthatemanatingfromEurope。Insteadofbeingakindlyanddisinterestedprotectorofsmallneighbors，the"ColossusoftheNorth"appearedrathertoresembleapoliticalandcommercialogrebentuponswallowingthemtosatisfy"manifestdestiny。"
　　Havingsucceededinputtingaroundhisheadanaureoleoflocalpopularity，Castroin1905pickedanewsetofpartiallyjustifiedquarrelswiththeUnitedStates，GreatBritain，France，Italy，Colombia，andevenwiththeNetherlands，arisingoutofthedepredationsofrevolutionists;butanarmedmenacefromtheUnitedStatesinducedhimtodesistfromhisplans。Hecontentedhimselfaccordinglywithissuingadecreeofamnestyforallpoliticaloffendersexcepttheleaders。When"reelected，"hecarriedhismagnanimitysofarastoresignawhileinfavoroftheVicePresident，statingthat，ifhisretirementweretobringpeaceandconcord，hewouldmakeitpermanent。Butashesawtoitthathistemporarywithdrawalshouldnothavethishappyresult，hecamebackagaintohisfirmerpositionafewmonthslater。
　　VentinghiswrathupontheNetherlandsbecauseitsministerhadreportedtohisGovernmentanoutbreakofcholeraatLaGuaira，thechiefseaportofVenezuela，thedictatorlaidanembargoonDutchcommerce，seizeditsships，anddenouncedtheDutchfortheirallegedfailuretocheckfilibusteringfromtheirislandsoffthecoast。Whentheministerprotested，Castroexpelledhim。
　　ThereupontheNetherlandsinstitutedablockadeoftheVenezuelanports。WhatmighthavehappenedifCastrohadremainedmuchlongerincharge，maybeguessed。Towardthecloseof1908，however，hedepartedforEuropetoundergoacourseofmedicaltreatment。HardlyhadheleftVenezuelanshoreswhenJuanVicenteGomez，theable，astute，andvigorousVicePresident，managedtosecurehisownelectiontothepresidencyandanimmediaterecognitionfromforeignstates。UnderhisdirectionalloftheinternationaltanglesofVenezuelawerestraightenedout。
　　In1914thecountryadopteditseleventhconstitutionandtherebylengthenedthepresidentialtermtosevenyears，shortenedthatofmembersofthelowerhouseoftheCongresstofour，determineddefinitelythenumberofStatesintheunion，alteredtheapportionmentoftheircongressionalrepresentation，andenlargedthepowersofthefederalGovernment——or，rather，thoseofitsexecutivebranch！In1914GomezresignedofficeinfavoroftheVicePresident，andsecuredanappointmentinsteadascommanderinchiefofthearmy。Thisprocedurewaspromptlydenouncedasatricktoevadetheconstitutionalprohibitionoftwoconsecutiveterms。AyearlaterhewasunanimouslyelectedPresident，thoughheneverformallytooktheoathofoffice。
　　WhatevermaybethoughtofthepoliticalwaysandmeansofthisnewGuzminBlancotomaintainhimselfasapowerbehindoronthepresidentialthrone，GomezgaveVenezuelaanadministrationofasortverydifferentfromthatofhisimmediatepredecessor。Hesuppressedvariousgovernmentmonopolies，removedotherobstaclestothematerialadvancementofthecountry，andreducedthenationaldebt。HedidmuchalsotoimprovethesanitaryconditionsatLaGuaira，andhepromotededucation，especiallytheteachingofforeignlanguages。
　　GomezneverthelesshadtokeepawatchfuleyeonthepartisansofCastro，whobrokeoutinrevoltwhenevertheyhadanopportunity。
　　TheUnitedStates，GreatBritain，France，theNetherlands，Denmark，Cuba，andColombiaeyedthemovementsoftheex—dictatornervously，asEuropeanpowerslongagowerewonttodointhecaseofacertainManofDestiny，andbarredhimoutofboththeirpossessionsandVenezuelaitself。Internationalpatience，neverJob—like，hadbeentoosorelyvexedtopermithisreturn。
　　Nevertheless，afterthemanneroftheancientpersecutoroftheBiblicalmartyr，Castrodidnotrefrainfromgoingtoandfrointheearth。Infacthestill"walkethabout"seekingtorecoverhisholduponVenezuela！
　　CHAPTERX。MEXICOINREVOLUTION
　　When，in1910，likeseveralofitssisterrepublics，Mexicocelebratedthecentennialanniversaryofitsindependence，theeraofpeaceandprogressinauguratedbyPorfirioDiazseemedlikelytolastindefinitely，forhewasenteringuponhiseighthtermasPresident。Brilliantashiscareerhadbeen，however，andgreatlyasMexicohadprosperedunderhisrigidrule，asullendiscontenthadbeenbrewing。ThecountrythathadhadbutonecontinuousPresidentintwenty—sixyearswasdestinedtohavesomefourteenchiefmagistratesinlessthanaquarterofthattime，andtosurpassallitspreviousrecordsforrapidityinpresidentialsuccession，byhavingoneexecutivewhoissaidtohaveheldofficeforpreciselyfifty—sixminutes！
　　IthasoftenbeenassertedthatthereasonforthedownfallofDiazandthelapseofMexicointotheunhappyconditionsofahalfcenturyearlierwasthathehadgrowntoooldtokeepafirmgriponthesituation。Ithasalsobeendeclaredthathisinsistenceuponreelectionandupontheelevationofhisownpersonalcandidatetothevicepresidency，asasuccessorincaseofhisretirement，occasionedhisoverthrow。Thetruthofthematteristhatthesecircumstanceswereonlyincidentaltohisdownfall;therealcausesofrevolutionlaydeeprootedinthehistoryofthesetwenty—sixyears。Themostsignificantfeatureoftherevoltwasitsciviliancharacter。Awidespreadpublicopinionhadbeencreated;anationalconsciousnesshadbeenawakenedwhichwasintolerantofabusesanddeterminedupontheirremovalatanycost;andthispublicopinionandnationalconsciousnesswereproductsofgeneraleducation，whichhadbroughttotheforeanumberofintelligentmeneagertoparticipateinpublicaffairsandyetbarredoutbecauseoftheirunwillingnesstosupporttheexistingregime。
　　Someonehasremarked，andrightly，thatDiazinhiszealforthematerialadvancementofMexico，mistookthetangiblewealthofthecountryforitswelfare。Desirableandevennecessaryasthatmaterialprogresswas，itproducedonlyaone—sidedprosperity。
　　Diazwassingularlydeaftothejustcomplaintsofthepeopleofthelaboringclasses，who，asmanufacturingandotherindustrialenterprisesdeveloped，wereresolvedtobettertheirconditions。
　　Inthecountryatlargethediscontentwasstillstronger。
　　Throughoutmanyoftheruraldistrictsgeneraladvancementhadbeenretardedbecauseoftheholdingofhugeareasoffertilelandbyacomparativelyfewrichfamilies，whodidlittletoimproveitandwerecontentwithsmallreturnsfromthelaborofthrongsofunskillednativecultivators。Wretchedlypaidandhoused，andtoilinglonghours，theworkerslivedliketheserfsofmedievaldaysorastheirownancestorsdidincolonialtimes。
　　Ignorant，poverty—stricken，liableatanymomenttobedispossessedofthetinypatchofgroundonwhichtheyraisedafewhillsofcornorbeans，mostofthemwerenaturallyasimple，peacefulfolkwho，inspiteoftheirmisfortunes，mighthavegoneonindefinitelywiththeirdrudgeryinahopelessapatheticfashion，unlesstheirlatentsavageinstinctshappenedtobearousedbydrinkandtheprospectofplunder。Ontheotherhand，theintelligentamongthem，knowingthatinsomeofthenorthernStatesoftherepublicwageswerehigherandtreatmentfairer，feltasenseofwrongwhich，likethatofthelaboringclassinthetowns，wasallthemoredangerousbecauseitwasnotallowedtofindexpression。
　　DiazthoughtthatwhatMexicorequiredaboveeverythingelsewasthedevelopmentofindustrialefficiencyandfinancialstrength，assuredbyamaintenanceofabsoluteorder。Thoughdisposedtodojusticeinindividualcases，hewouldtoleratenoclassmovementsofanykind。Laborunions，strikes，andothereffortsatlighteningtheburdenoftheworkersheregardedasseditiousanddeservingofseverepunishment。Inordertoattractcapitalfromabroadasthebestmeansofexploitingthevastresourcesofthecountry，hewaswillingtogotoanylength，itwouldseem，inguaranteeingprotection。Smallwonder，therefore，thatthepeoplewhosharedinnoneoftheimmediateadvantagesfromthatsourceshouldhavemutteredthatMexicowasthe"motherofforeignersandthestepmotherofMexicans。"And，sincesomuchofthecapitalcamefromtheUnitedStates，theantiforeignsentimentsingledAmericansoutforitsparticulardislike。
　　IfDiazappearedunabletoappreciatethesignificanceoftheeducationalandindustrialawakening，hewasnolessobliviousofthepoliticaloutcome。Heknew，ofcourse，thattheMexicanconstitutionmadeimpossibledemandsuponthepoliticalcapacityofthepeople。HewashimselfmainlyofIndianbloodandhebelievedthatheunderstoodthetemperamentandlimitationsofmostMexicans。Knowinghowtenaciouslytheyclungtopoliticalnotions，hebelievedthatitwassaferandwisertoforego，atleastforatime，realpopulargovernmentandtoconcentratepowerinthehandsofastrongmanwhocouldmaintainorder。
　　Accordingly，backedbyhispoliticaladherents，knownascientificos（doctrinaires），someofwhomhadacquiredasinisterascendancyoverhim，andalsobytheChurch，thelandedproprietors，andtheforeigncapitalists，Diazcenteredtheentireadministrationmoreandmoreinhimself。Electionsbecamemerefarces。Notonlythefederalofficialsthemselvesbutthestategovernors，themembersofthestatelegislatures，andallothersinauthorityduringthelateryearsofhisruleowedtheirselectionprimarilytohimandheldtheirpositionsonlyifpersonallyloyaltohim。ConfidentofhissupportandcertainthatprotestsagainstmisgovernmentwouldberegardedbythePresidentasseditious，manyofthemabusedtheirpoweratwill。
　　Notableamongthemwerethelocalofficials，calledjefespoliticos，whosecontrolofthepoliceforceenabledthemtoindulgeinpracticesofintimidationandextortionwhichultimatelybecameunendurable。
　　ThoughsymptomsofpopularwrathagainsttheDiazregime，ordiazpotismastheMexicanstermedit，wereapparentasearlyas1908，itwasnotuntilJanuary，1911，thattheactualrevolutioncame。ItwasheadedbyFranciscoI。Madero，amemberofawealthyanddistinguishedfamilyoflandedproprietorsinoneofthenorthernStates。WhattherevolutionistsdemandedinsubstancewastheretirementofthePresident，VicePresident，andCabinet;
　　areturntotheprincipleofnoreelectiontothechiefmagistracy;aguaranteeoffairelectionsatalltimes;thechoiceofcapable，honest，andimpartialjudges，jefespoliticos，andotherofficials;and，inparticular，aseriesofagrarianandindustrialreformswhichwouldbreakupthegreatestates，createpeasantproprietorships，andbettertheconditionsoftheworkingclasses。Disposedatfirsttotreattheinsurrectionlightly，Diazsoonfoundthathehadunderestimateditsstrength。Grantsofsomeofthedemandsandpromisesofreformweremetwithadoggedinsistenceuponhisownresignation。Then，astherebellionspreadtothesouthward，themasterfuloldmanrealizedthathisthirty—oneyearsofrulewereatanend。Onthe25thofMay，therefore，hegaveuphispowerandsailedforEurope。
　　MaderowaschosenPresidentfivemonthslater，buttherevolutionsoonpassedbeyondhiscontrol。Hewasasincereidealist，ifnotsomethingofavisionary，actuatedbyhumaneandkindlysentiments，buthelackedresolutenessandtheartofmanagingmen。Hewastooprolific，also，ofpromiseswhichhemusthaveknownhecouldnotkeep。Yieldingtofamilyinfluence，helethisfollowersgetoutofhand。AmbitiouschieftainsandgroupsofRadicalsblockedandthwartedhimateveryturn。Whenhecouldfindnomeansofcarryingouthisprogramwithoutwholesaleconfiscationandthedisruptionofbusinessinterests，hewasaccusedofabandoninghisduty。Oneofficerafteranotherdesertedhimandturnedrebel。BrigandageandinsurrectionsweptoverthecountryandthreatenedtoinvolveitinuglycomplicationswiththeUnitedStatesandEuropeanpowers。Atlength，inFebruary，1913，cametheblowthatputanendtoallofMadero’seffortsandaspirations。AmilitaryuprisinginthecityofMexicomadehimprisoner，forcedhimtoresign，andsetupaprovisionalgovernmentunderthedictatorshipofVictorianoHuerta，oneofhischieflieutenants。TwoweekslaterbothMaderoandtheVicePresidentwereassassinatedwhileontheirwaysupposedlytoaplaceofsafety。
　　HuertawasaroughsoldierofIndianorigin，possessedofunusualforceofcharacterandstrengthofwill，ruthless，cunning，andinbearingalternatelydignifiedandvulgar。Acientificoinpoliticalfaith，hewasdisposedtorestoretheDiazregime，sofarasanapplicationofshrewdnessandforcecouldmakeitpossible。Butfromtheoutsethefoundanobstacleconfrontinghimthathecouldnotsurmount。ThoughacknowledgedbyEuropeancountriesandbymanyoftheHispanicrepublics，hecouldnotwinrecognitionfromtheUnitedStates，eitherasprovisionalPresidentorasacandidateforregularelectiontotheoffice。
　　WhetherpersonallyresponsibleforthemurderofMaderoornot，hewasnotregardedbytheAmericanGovernmentasentitledtorecognition，onthegroundthathewasnotthechoiceoftheMexicanpeople。Initsrefusaltorecognizeanadministrationsetupmerelybybruteforce，theUnitedStateswasupheldbyArgentina，Brazil，Chile，andCuba。TheeliminationofHuertabecamethechieffeatureforawhileofitsMexicanpolicy。
　　MeanwhilethefollowersofMaderoandthepronouncedRadicalshadfoundanewnorthernleaderinthepersonofVenustianoCarranza。
　　TheycalledthemselvesConstitutionalists，asindicativeoftheirpurposetoreestablishtheconstitutionandtochooseasuccessortoMaderoinaconstitutionalmanner。Whattheyreallydesiredwasthoseradicalchangesalongsocial，industrial，andpoliticallines，whichMaderohadchampionedintheory。TheysoughttointroduceaspeciesofsocialisticregimethatwouldprovidetheMexicanswithanopportunityforself—regeneration。WhileDiazhadbelievedineconomicprogresssupportedbythegreatlandedproprietors，themoralinfluenceoftheChurch，andtheapplicationofforeigncapital，theConstitutionalists，personifiedinCarranza，wereconvincedthattheseagencies，ifleftfreeandundisturbedtoworktheirwill，wouldruinMexico。
　　Thoughnotexactlyantiforeignintheirattitude，theywishedtocurbthepoweroftheforeigner;theywouldaccepthisaidwheneverdesirablefortheeconomicdevelopmentofthecountry，buttheywouldnotsubmittohisvirtualcontrolofpublicaffairs。InanycasetheywouldtoleratenointerferencebytheUnitedStates。CompromisewiththeHuertaregime，therefore，wasimpossible。Huerta，the"strongman"oftheDiaztype，mustgo。
　　Onthispoint，atleast，theConstitutionalistswereinthoroughagreementwiththeUnitedStates。
　　Avarietyofinternationalcomplicationsensued。BothHuertistasandCarranzistasperpetratedoutragesonforeigners，whichevokedsharpprotestsandthreatsfromtheUnitedStatesandEuropeanpowers。Whilecarefulnottorecognizehisopponentsofficially，theAmericanGovernmentresortedtoallkindsofmeanstooustthedictator。Anembargowaslaidontheexportofarmsandmunitions;alleffortstoprocurefinancialhelpfromabroadwerebalked。ThepowerofHuertawaswaningperceptiblyandthatoftheConstitutionalistswasincreasingwhenanincidentthatoccurredinApril，1914，atTampicobroughtmatterstoaclimax。
　　AnumberofAmericansailorswhohadgoneashoretoobtainsupplieswerearrestedandtemporarilydetained。TheUnitedStatesdemandedthattheAmericanflagbesalutedasreparationfortheinsult。UpontherefusalofHuertatocomply，theUnitedStatessentanavalexpeditiontooccupyVeraCruz。
　　BothCarranzaandHuertaregardedthismoveasequivalenttoanactofwar。Argentina，Brazil，andChilethenofferedtheirmediation。ButtheconferencearrangedforthispurposeatNiagaraFalls，Canada，hadbeforeitataskaltogetherimpossibleofaccomplishment。ThoughCarranzawaswillingtohavetheConstitutionalistsrepresented，ifthediscussionrelatedsolelytotheimmediateissuebetweentheUnitedStatesandHuerta，hedeclinedtoextendthescopeoftheconferencesoastoadmittherightoftheUnitedStatestointerfereintheinternalaffairsofMexico。Theconferenceaccomplishednothingsofarastheimmediateissuewasconcerned。Thedictatordidnotmakereparationforthe"affrontsandindignities"hehadcommitted;
　　buthisdaywasover。TheadvanceoftheConstitutionalistssouthwardcompelledhiminJulytoabandonthecapitalandleavethecountry。FourmonthslatertheAmericanforceswerewithdrawnfromVeraCruz。The"ABC"Conference，howeverbarrenitwasofdirectresults，helpedtoallaysuspicionsoftheUnitedStatesinHispanicAmericaandbroughtappreciablynearera"concertofthewesternworld。"
　　WhilefarfromexercisingfullcontrolthroughoutMexico，the"firstchief"oftheConstitutionalistswaseasilythedominantfigureinthesituation。Athomearanchman，inpublicaffairsastatesmanofconsiderableability，knowinghowtoinsistandyethowtotemporize，Carranzacarriedonastruggle，bothinarmsandindiplomacy，whichsingledhimoutasaremarkablecharacter。ShrewdlyawareoftheadvantageouscircumstancesaffordedhimbythewarinEurope，heturnedthemtoaccountwithadegreeofskillthatblockedeveryattemptatdefeatorcompromise。NomatterhowserioustheoppositiontohiminMexicoitself，howmenacingtheattitudeoftheUnitedStates，orhowpersuasivetheconciliatorydispositionofHispanicAmericannations，heclungstubbornlyandtenaciouslytohisprogram。
　　EvenafterHuertahadbeeneliminated，Carranza’spositionwasnotassured，forFrancisco，or"Pancho，"Villa，achieftainwhosepersonalqualitiesresembledthoseofthefallendictator，wasequallydeterminedtoeliminatehim。Forabriefmoment，indeed，peacereigned。Underanallegedagreementbetweenthem，aconventionofConstitutionalistofficerswastochooseaprovisionalPresident，whoshouldbeineligibleasacandidateforthepermanentpresidencyattheregularelections。WhenCarranzaassumedbothofthesepositions，Villadeclaredhisactaviolationoftheirunderstandingandinsisteduponhisretirement。InasmuchastheconventionwasdominatedbyVilla，the"firstchief"decidedtoignoreitselectionofaprovisionalPresident。
　　ThestrugglebetweentheConventionalistsheadedbyVillaandtheConstitutionalistsunderCarranzaplungedMexicointoworsediscordandmiserythanever。Indeeditbecameasortofthree—corneredcontest。ThethirdpartywasEmilianoZapata，anIndianbandit，nominallyasupporterofVillabutactuallyfavorabletoneitheroftherivals。Operatingnearthecapital，heplunderedConventionalistsandConstitutionalistswithequalimpartiality，andasadiversionoccasionallyoccupiedthecityitself。ThesecircumstancesgaveforcetothesayingthatMexicowasa"landwherepeacebreaksoutonceinawhile！"
　　Earlyin1915Carranzaproceededtoissueanumberofradicaldecreesthatexasperatedforeignersalmostbeyondendurance。
　　Ratherthanresorttoextrememeasuresagain，however，theUnitedStatesinvokedthecooperationoftheHispanicrepublicsandproposedaconferencetodevisesomesolutionoftheMexicanproblem。Togivetheproposedconferenceawiderrepresentation，itinvitednotonlythe"ABC"powers，butBolivia，Uruguay，andGuatemalatoparticipate。MeetingatWashingtoninAugust，themediatorsencounteredthesamedifficultywhichhadconfrontedtheirpredecessorsatNiagaraFalls。Thoughtheotherchieftainsassented，Carranza，nowcertainofsuccess，declinedtoheedanyproposalofconciliation。Characterizingeffortsofthekindasanunwarrantedinterferenceintheinternalaffairsofasisternation，hewarnedtheHispanicrepublicsagainstsettingupsodangerousaprecedent。InreplyArgentinastatedthattheconferenceobeyeda"loftyinspirationofPan—Americansolidarity，and，insteadoffindinganycauseforalarm，theMexicanpeopleshouldseeinitaproofoftheirfriendlyconsiderationthatherfateevokesinus，andcallsforthourgoodwishesforherpacificationanddevelopment。"However，astheonlyapparentescapefrommorewatchfulwaitingorfromarmedinterventiononthepartoftheUnitedStates，inOctoberthesevenGovernmentsdecidedtoacceptthefactsastheystood，andaccordinglyrecognizedCarranzaasthedefactorulerofMexico。
　　Enragedatthisfavorshowntohisrival，VilladetermineddeliberatelytoprovokeAmericaninterventionbyamurderousraidonatowninNewMexicoinMarch，1916。WhentheUnitedStatesdispatchedanexpeditiontoavengetheoutrage，CarranzaprotestedenergeticallyagainstitsviolationofMexicanterritoryanddemandeditswithdrawal。Severalclashes，infact，occurredbetweenAmericansoldiersandCarranzistas。Neithertheexpeditionitself，however，nordiplomaticeffortstofindsomemethodofcooperationwhichwouldpreventconstanttroublealongthefrontierservedanyusefulpurpose，sinceVillaapparentlycouldnotbecapturedandCarranzarefusedtoyieldtodiplomaticpersuasion。Carranzathenproposedthatajointcommissionbeappointedtosettlethesevexedquestions。Eventhisdeviceprovedwhollyunsatisfactory。TheMexicanswouldnotconcedetherightoftheUnitedStatestosendanarmedexpeditionintotheircountryatanytime，andtheAmericansrefusedtoacceptlimitationsonthekindoftroopsthattheymightemployoronthezoneoftheiroperations。InJanuary，1917，thejointcommissionwasdissolvedandtheAmericansoldierswerewithdrawn。Againthe"firstchief"hadwon！
　　Onthe5thofFebruaryaconventionassembledatQueretaropromulgatedaconstitutionembodyingsubstantiallyalloftheradicalprogramthatCarranzahadanticipatedinhisdecrees。
　　Besidesprovidingforanelaborateimprovementintheconditionofthelaboringclassesandforsuchadivisionofgreatestatesasmightsatisfytheirparticularneeds，thenewconstitutionimposeddrasticrestrictionsuponforeignersandreligiousbodies。Underitsterms，foreignerscouldnotacquireindustrialconcessionsunlesstheywaivedtheirtreatyrightsandconsentedtoregardthemselvesforthepurposeasMexicancitizens。InallsuchcasespreferencewastobeshownMexicansoverforeigners。
　　Ecclesiasticalcorporationswereforbiddentoownrealproperty。
　　Noprimaryschoolandnocharitableinstitutioncouldbeconductedbyanyreligiousmissionordenomination，andreligiouspublicationsmustrefrainfromcommentingonpublicaffairs。Thepresidentialtermwasreducedfromsixyearstofour;reelectionwasprohibited;andtheofficeofVicePresidentwasabolished。
　　When，onthe1stofMay，VenustianoCarranzawaschosenPresident，Mexicohaditsfirstconstitutionalexecutiveinfouryears。Afteracruelandobstinatelyintolerantstrugglethathadoccasionedindescribablesufferingfromdiseaseandstarvation，aswellastheusualslaughteranddestructionincidenttowar，thecountrybegantoenjoyoncemoreameasureofpeace。
　　Financialexhaustion，however，hadtobeovercomebeforerecuperationwaspossible。Industrialprogresshadbecomealmostparalyzed;vastquantitiesofdepreciatedpapermoneyhadtobewithdrawnfromcirculation;andanenormousarrayofclaimsforthelossofforeignlifeandpropertyhadrolledup。
　　CHAPTERXI。THEREPUBLICSOFTHECARIBBEAN
　　ThecourseofeventsincertainoftherepublicsinandaroundtheCaribbeanSeawarnedtheHispanicnationsthatindependencewasarelativeconditionandthatitmightvaryindirectratiowithnearnesstotheUnitedStates。After1906thispowerfulnorthernneighborshowedanunmistakabletendencytoextenditsinfluenceinvariousways。Herefiscalandpolicecontrolwasestablished;thereofficialrecognitionwaswithheldfromaPresidentwhohadsecuredofficebyunconstitutionalmethods。
　　Nonrecognitionpromisedtobeaneffectivewayofmaintainingaregimeoflawandorder，astheUnitedStatesunderstoodthoseterms。AssurancesfromtheUnitedStatesofthefullpoliticalequalityofallrepublics，bigorlittle，inthewesternhemispheredidnotalwayscarryconvictiontoSpanishAmericanears。ThesmallercountriesinandaroundtheCaribbeanSea，atleast，seemedlikelytobecomevirtuallyAmericanprotectorates。
　　LiketheirHispanicneighboronthenorth，thelittlerepublicsofCentralAmericawerealsoscenesofpoliticaldisturbance。
　　NoneofthemexceptPanamaescapedrevolutionaryuprisings，thoughthelossoflifeandpropertywasinsignificant。Ontheotherhand，intheseearlyyearsofthecenturythefivecountriesnorthofPanamamadesubstantialprogresstowardfederation。AsaSouthAmericanwriterhasexpressedit，theirpreviouseffortsinthatdirection"amidsumptuousfestivals，banquetsandothersolemnpublicacts"atwhichthey"intonedinlyricaccentsdailyhymnsfortheimperishablereunionoftheisthmianrepublics，"hadbeenasillusoryastheywerefrequent。
　　DespitethemediationoftheUnitedStatesandMexicoin1906，whilethelatterwasstillruledbyDiaz，thestruggleinwhichNicaragua，Honduras，Guatemala，andSalvadorhadbeenengagedwassoonrenewedbetweenthefirsttwobelligerents。Sincediplomaticinterpositionnolongeravailed，AmericanmarineswerelandedinNicaragua，andthebumptiousZelayawasinducedtohavehiscountrymeetitsneighborsinaconferenceatWashington。UndertheauspicesoftheUnitedStatesandMexico，inDecember，1907，representativesofthefiverepublicssignedaseriesofconventionsprovidingforpeaceandcooperation。Anarbitralcourtofjustice，tobeerectedinCostaRicaandcomposedofonejudgefromeachnation，wastodecideallmattersofdisputewhichcouldnotbeadjustedthroughordinarydiplomaticmeans。
　　Here，also，aninstituteforthetrainingofCentralAmericanteacherswastobeestablished。Annualconferencesweretodiscuss，andanofficeinGuatemalawastorecord，measuresdesignedtosecureuniformityinfinancial，commercial，industrial，sanitary，andeducationalregulations。Honduras，thestormcenterofweakness，wastobeneutralized。NoneoftheStateswasthereaftertorecognizeinanyofthemagovernmentwhichhadbeensetupinanillegalfashion。A"ConstitutionalActofCentralAmericanFraternity，"moreover，wasadoptedonbehalfofpeace，harmony，andprogress。Towardarealizationoftheseveralobjectsoftheconference，thePresidentsofthefiverepublicsweretoinvitetheircolleaguesoftheUnitedStatesandMexico，wheneverneedful，toappointrepresentatives，to"lendtheirgoodofficesinapurelyfriendlyway。"
　　Thoughmostoftheseagencieswerepromptlyputintooperation，theresultswerenotaltogethersatisfactory。Somediscords，tobesure，wereremovedbytreatiessettlingboundaryquestionsandprovidingforreciprocaltradeadvantages;butitisdoubtfulwhetherthearrangementsdevisedatWashingtonwouldhaveworkedatalliftheUnitedStateshadnotkeptthelittlecountriesunderacertainamountofobservation。WhattheCentralAmericansapparentlypreferredwastobeleftalone，someofthemtomindtheirownbusiness，otherstomindtheirneighbor’saffairs。
　　OfalltheCentralAmericancountriesHonduraswas，perhaps，theonemostafflictedwithpecuniarymisfortunes。In1909itsforeigndebt，alongwitharrearsofinterestunpaidforthirty—sevenyears，wasestimatedatupwardsof$110，000，000。Ofthisamountalargepartconsistedofloansobtainedfromforeigncapitalists，atmoreorlessextortionaterates，fortheconstructionofashortrailway，ofwhichlessthanhalfhadbeenbuilt。ThatrevolutionsshouldberatherchronicinalandwheresomuchmoneycouldbesquanderedandwherethetemperamentsofPresidentsandex—Presidentsweresobellicose，wasnaturalenough。WhentheUnitedStatescouldnotinducethewarringrivalstoabidebyfairelections，itsentaforceofmarinestooverawethemandgavewarningthatfurtherdisturbanceswouldnotbeallowed。
　　InNicaraguatheconditionsweresimilar。HereZelaya，restiveunderthelimitationssetbytheconferenceatWashington，yearnedtobecomethe"strongman"ofCentralAmerica，whowouldteachtheYankeestostoptheirmeddling。Buthisdownfallwasimminent。In1909，astheresultofhisexecutionoftwoAmericansoldiersoffortunewhohadtakenpartinarecentinsurrection，theUnitedStatesresolvedtotolerateZelayanolonger。Openlyrecognizingtheinsurgents，itforcedthedictatoroutofthecountry。Threeyearslater，whenaPresident—electstartedtoassumeofficebeforethelegallyappointedtime，aforceofAmericanmarinesatthecapitalconvincedhimthatsuchaprocedurewasundesirable。The"corruptandbarbarous"conditionsprevailinginZelaya’stime，hewasinformed，couldnotbetolerated。TheUnitedStates，infact，notifiedallpartiesinNicaraguathat，underthetermsoftheWashingtonconventions，ithada"moralmandatetoexertitsinfluenceforthepreservationofthegeneralpeaceofCentralAmerica。"Sincethoseagreementshadvestednoonewithauthoritytoenforcethem，suchaninterpretationoftheirlanguage，aimedapparentlyatalldisturbances，foreignaswellasdomestic，wasratherelastic！Atallevents，after1912，whenanewconstitutionwasadopted，thecountrybecamerelativelyquietandsomewhatprogressive。
　　Wheneverapoliticalflurrydidtakeplace，Americanmarineswereemployedtopreservethepeace。Manycitizens，therefore，declinedtovote，onthegroundthatthemoralandmaterialsupportthusfurnishedbythegreatnationtothenorthwardrendereditfutileforthemtoassumepoliticalresponsibilities。
　　MeanwhilenegotiationsbeganwhichwereultimatelytomakeNicaraguaafiscalprotectorateoftheUnitedStates。Americanofficialswerechosentoactasfinancialadvisersandcollectorsofcustoms，andfavorablearrangementswereconcludedwithAmericanbankersregardingthemonetarysituation;butitwasnotuntil1916thatatreatycoveringthissituationwasratified。
　　Accordingtoitsprovisions，inreturnforastipulatedsumtobeexpendedunderAmericandirection，NicaraguawastogranttotheUnitedStatestheexclusiveprivilegeofconstructingacanalthroughtheterritoryoftherepublicandtoleasetoittheCornIslandsandapartofFonsecaBay，onthePacificcoast，foruseasnavalstations。TheprospectofAmericaninterventionalarmedtheneighboringrepublics。Assertingthatthetreatyinfringedupontheirrespectiveboundaries，CostaRica，andSalvadorbroughtsuitagainstNicaraguabeforetheCentralAmericanCourt。
　　WiththeexceptionoftheNicaraguanrepresentative，thejudgesupheldthecontentionoftheplaintiffsthatthedefendanthadnorighttomakeanysuchconcessionswithoutpreviousconsultationwithCostaRica，Salvador，andHonduras，sinceallthreealikewereaffectedbythem。TheCourtobserved，however，thatitcouldnotdeclarethetreatyvoidbecausetheUnitedStates，oneofthepartiesconcerned，wasnotsubjecttoitsjurisdiction。Nicaraguadeclinedtoacceptthedecision;andtheUnitedStates，thecountryresponsiblefortheexistenceoftheCourtandpresumablyinterestedinhelpingtoenforceitsjudgment，allowedittogooutofexistencein1918ontheexpirationofitsten—yearterm。
　　TheeconomicsituationofCostaRicabroughtaboutastateofaffairswhollyunusualinCentralAmericanpolitics。ThePresident，AlfredoGonzalez，wishedtoreformthesystemoftaxationsothatafairershareofthepublicburdensshouldfallonthegreatlandholderswho，likemostoftheirbrethrenintheHispaniccountries，werepracticallyexempt。Thisproject，coupledwiththefactthatcertainAmericancitizensseekinganoilconcessionhadunderminedthepowerofthePresidentbywholesalebribery，inducedtheMinisterofWar，in1917，tostartarevoltagainsthim。Ratherthanshedthebloodofhisfellowcitizensformerepersonaladvantages，GonzalezsustainedthegoodreputationofCostaRicaforfreedomfromcivilcommotionsbyquietlyleavingthecountryandgoingtotheUnitedStatestopresenthiscase。Inconsequence，theAmericanGovernmentdeclinedtorecognizethedefactoruler。
　　PoliceandfiscalsupervisionbytheUnitedStateshascharacterizedtherecenthistoryofPanama。Notonlyhasaproposedincreaseinthecustomsdutiesbeendisallowed，butmorethanoncetheunrestattendingpresidentialelectionshasrequiredthecalmingpresenceofAmericanofficials。Asameansofforestallingoutbreaks，particularlyinviewofthecosmopolitanpopulationresidentontheIsthmus，therepublicenactedalawin1914whichforbadeforeignerstomixinlocalpoliticsandauthorizedtheexpulsionofnaturalizedcitizenswhoattackedtheGovernmentthroughthepressorotherwise。WiththeapprovaloftheUnitedStates，PanamaenteredintoanagreementwithAmericanfinanciersprovidingforthecreationofanationalbank，one—fourthofthedirectorsofwhichshouldbenamedbytheGovernmentoftherepublic。
　　ThesecondperiodofAmericanruleinCubalastedtill1909。
　　ControloftheGovernmentwasthenformallytransferredtoJoseMiguelGomez，thePresidentwhohadbeenchosenbytheLiberalsattheelectionsheldinthepreviousyear;buttheUnitedStatesdidnotceasetowatchoveritschiefCaribbeanward。AbittercontroversysoondevelopedintheCubanCongressovermeasurestoforbidthefurtherpurchaseoflandbyaliens，andtoinsurethatacertainpercentageofthepublicofficesshouldbeheldbycoloredcitizens。Thoughbothprojectsweredefeated，theyrevealedastrongantiforeignsentimentandmuchdissatisfactiononthepartofthenegropopulation。ItwasclearalsothatGomez，intendedtooustallconservativesfromoffice，foranobedientCongresspassedabillsuspendingthecivilservicerules。
　　ThepartisanshipofGomez，andhissupporters，togetherwiththeconstantinterferenceofmilitaryveteransinpoliticalaffairs，provokednumerousoutbreaks，whichledtheUnitedStates，in1912，towarnCubathatitmightagainbecompelledtointervene。
　　Eventually，whenanegroinsurrectionintheeasternpartoftheislandmenacedthesafetyofforeigners，Americanmarineswerelanded。AnotherinstanceofinterventionwastheobjectionbytheUnitedStatestoanemployers’liabilitylawthatwouldhavegivenamonopolyoftheinsurancebusinesstoaCubancompanytothedetrimentofAmericanfirms。
　　AftertheelectionofMarioMenocal，theConservativecandidate，tothepresidencyin1912，anotheroccasionforinterventionpresenteditself。Anamnestybill，originallydraftedforthepurposeoffreeingthecoloredinsurgentsandotheroffenders，wasamendedsoastoempowertheretiringPresidenttograntpardonbeforetrialtopersonswhomhissuccessorwishedtoprosecuteforwholesalecorruptioninfinancialtransactions。
　　Beforethebillpassed，however，noticewassentfromWashingtonthat，sincetheAmericanGovernmenthadtheauthoritytosupervisethefinancesoftherepublic，Gomezwouldbettervetothebill，andthisheaccordinglydid。
　　AsharpstrugglearosewhenitbecameknownthatMenocalwouldbeacandidateforreelection。TheLiberalmajorityintheCongresspassedabillrequiringthataPresidentwhosoughttosucceedhimselfshouldresigntwomonthsbeforetheelections。WhenMenocalvetoedthismeasure，hisopponentsdemandedthattheUnitedStatessupervisetheelections。Astheresultoftheelectionswasdoubtful，Gomezandhisfollowersresortedin1917
　　totheusualinsurrection;whereupontheAmericanGovernmentwarnedtherebelsthatitwouldnotrecognizetheirclaimsiftheywonbyforce。Activeaidfromthatquarter，aswellasthecaptureoftheinsurgentleader，causedthemovementtocollapseaftertheelectoralcollegehaddecidedinfavorofMenocal。
　　IntheDominicanRepublicdisturbanceswerefrequent，notwithstandingthefactthatAmericanofficialswereinchargeofthecustomhousesandbytheirpresencewereexpectedtoexertaquietinginfluence。Eventheadoption，in1908，ofanewconstitutionwhichprovidedfortheprolongationofthepresidentialtermtosixyearsandfortheabolitionoftheofficeofVicePresident——twostabilizingdevicesquitecommoninHispaniccountrieswherepersonalambitionispronetobeasourceofpoliticaltrouble——didnothelpmuchtorestoreorder。
　　TheassassinationofthePresidentandthepersistenceofage—longquarrelswithHaitioverboundariesmademattersworse。
　　Thereupon，in1913，theUnitedStatesservedformalnoticeontherebelliouspartiesthatitwouldnotonlyrefusetorecognizeanyGovernmentsetupbyforcebutwouldwithholdanyshareinthereceiptsfromthecustoms。AsthisproceduredidnotpreventarevolutionaryleaderfromdemandinghalfamilliondollarsasafinancialsedativeforhispoliticalnervesandfromcreatingmoretroublewhenthePresidentfailedtodispenseit，theheavyhandofanAmericannavalforceadministeredanotherkindofspecific，untilcommissionersfromPortoRicocouldarrivetosuperintendtheselectionofanewchiefmagistrate。
　　NotwithstandingtheprotestoftheDominicanGovernment，the"fairestandfreest"electionseverknowninthecountrywereheldunderthedirectionofthoseofficials——asa"bodyoffriendlyobservers"！
　　Howeveramicablethisarrangementseemed，itdidnotsmothertheflamesofdiscord。In1916，whenanAmericannavalcommandersuggestedthatarebelliousMinisterofWarleavethecapital，heagreedtodosoifthe"fairestandfreest"ofchosenPresidentswouldresign。Evenafterbothofthemhadcompliedwiththesuggestions，theindividualswhoassumedtheirrespectiveofficesweresoonatloggerheads。AccordinglytheUnitedStatesplacedtherepublicundermilitaryrule，untilaPresidentcouldbeelectedwhomightbeabletoretainhispostwithouttoomuch"friendlyobservation"fromWashington，andaMinisterofWarcouldbeappointedwhowouldrefrainfrommakingwaronthePresident！Thentheorganizationofanewpartytocombatthepreviousinordinatedisplayofpersonalitiesinpoliticscreatedsomehopethattherepublicwouldaccomplishitsownredemption。
　　OnlybecauseofitsrelationtothewarsofemancipationandtotheDominicanRepublic，needthenegrostateofHaiti，occupyingthewesternpartoftheCaribbeanisland，bementionedinconnectionwiththestoryoftheHispanicnations。SufficeittosaythatthefactthattheircolorwasdifferentandthattheyspokeavariantofFrenchinsteadofSpanishdidnotpreventtheinhabitantsofthisstatefromofferingafarworsespectacleofpoliticalandfinancialdemoralizationthandidtheirneighborstotheeastward。PerpetualcommotionsandrepeatedinterventionsbyAmericanandEuropeannavalforcesonbehalfoftheforeignresidents，eventuallymadeitimperativefortheUnitedStatestotakedirectchargeoftherepublic。In1916，byaconventionwhichplacedthefinancesunderAmericancontrol，createdanativeconstabularyunderAmericanofficers，andimposedanumberofotherrestraints，theUnitedStatesconvertedHaitiintowhatispracticallyaprotectorate。
　　CHAPTERXII。PAN—AMERICANISMANDTHEGREATWAR
　　WhiletheHispanicrepublicswereenteringuponthesecondcenturyoftheirindependentlife，theideaofacertaincommunityofinterestsbetweenthemselvesandtheUnitedStatesbegantoassumeafairlydefiniteform。ThoughemphasizedbyAmericanstatesmenandpublicistsinparticular，thenewpointofviewwasnotgenerallyunderstoodorappreciatedbythepeopleofeitherthiscountryoritsfellownationstothesouthward。Itseemed，nevertheless，topromiseaneffectivecooperationinspiritandactionbetweenthemandcamethereforetobecalled"Pan—Americanism。"
　　Thissentimentofinter—Americansolidaritysprangfromseveralsources。TheperiodicalconferencesoftheUnitedStatesanditssisterrepublicsgaveoccasionforaninterchangeofofficialcourtesiesandexpressionsofgoodfeeling。Doubtless，also，thepresenceofdelegatesfromtheHispaniccountriesattheinternationalgatheringsatTheHagueservedtoacquainttheworldatlargewiththestability，strength，wealth，andcultureoftheirrespectivelands。IndividualAmericanstookanactiveinterestintheirfellowsofHispanicstockandfoundtheirinterestreciprocated。Motivesofbusinessorpleasureandadesiretoobtainpersonalknowledgeaboutoneanotherledtovisitsandcountervisitsthatbecamesteadilymorefrequent。
　　Societieswerecreatedtoencouragethefriendshipandacquaintancethusformed。ScientificcongresseswereheldandinstituteswerefoundedinwhichboththeUnitedStatesandHispanicAmericawererepresented。Books，articles，andnewspaperaccountsaboutoneanother’scountrieswerepublishedinincreasingvolume。Educationalinstitutionsdevotedaconstantlygrowingattentiontointer—Americanaffairs。IndividualsandcommissionsweredispatchedbytheHispanicnationsandtheUnitedStatestostudyoneanother’sconditionsandtoconferaboutmattersofmutualconcern。SecretariesofState，MinistersofForeignAffairs，andotherdistinguishedpersonagesinterchangedvisits。Aboveall，thecommondangersandresponsibilitiesfallingupontheAmericasatlargeasaconsequenceoftheEuropeanwarseemedlikelytobringtheseveralnationsintoaharmonyoffeelingandrelationshiptowhichtheyhadneverbeforeattained。
　　Pan—Americanism，however，wasdestinedtoremainlargelyagenerousideal。TheactionoftheUnitedStatesinextendingitsdirectinfluenceoverthesmallrepublicsinandaroundtheCaribbeanarousedthesuspicionandalarmofHispanicAmericans，whostillfearedimperialisticdesignsonthepartofthatcountrynowmorethanevertheColossusoftheNorth。"TheartoforatoryamongtheYankees，"declaredaSouthAmericancritic，"islavishwithafraternalidealism;butstrongwillsenforcetheirimperialisticambitions。"ImpassionedspeakersandwritersadjuredtheghostofHispanicconfederationtoriseandconfrontthenewnorthernperil。TheyevenadvocatedanappealtoGreatBritain，Germany，orJapan，andtheyurgedclosereconomic，social，andintellectualrelationswiththecountriesofEurope。
　　ItwaswhiletheUnitedStateswasthuswideningthesphereofitsinfluenceintheCaribbeanthatthe"ABC"
　　powers——Argentina，Brazil，andChile——reachedanunderstandingwhichwasinasenseameasureofself—defense。Forsomeyearscordialrelationshadexistedamongthesethreenationswhichhadgrownsoremarkablyinstrengthandprestige。ItwasfeltthatbyunitedactiontheymightsetupintheNewWorldtheEuropeanprincipleofabalanceofpower，assumetheleadershipinHispanicAmerica，andserveinsomedegreeasacounterpoisetotheUnitedStates。NeverthelesstheyweredisposedtocooperatewiththeirnorthernneighborinthepeaceableadjustmentofconflictsinwhichotherHispaniccountrieswereconcerned，providedthatthemediationcarriedonbysucha"concertofthewesternworld"didnotincludeactualinterventionintheinternalaffairsofthecountriesinvolved。
　　Withthisattitudeofthepublicmind，itisnotstrangethattheHispanicrepublicsatlargeshouldhavebeeninclinedtolookwithscantfavoruponproposalsmadebytheUnitedStates，in1916，torenderthespiritofPan—Americanismmorepreciseinitsoperation。Theproposalsinsubstancewerethese：thatallthenationsofAmerica"mutuallyagreetoguaranteetheterritorialintegrity"ofoneanother;to"maintainarepublicanformofgovernment";toprohibitthe"exportationofarmstoanybutthelegallyconstitutedgovernments";andtoadoptlawsofneutralitywhichwouldmakeit"impossibletofilibusteringexpeditionstothreatenorcarryonrevolutionsinneighboringrepublics。"Theseproposalsappeartohavereceivednoformalapprovalbeyondwhatissignifiedbythediplomaticexpression"inprinciple。"
　　Consideringthedisparityinstrength，wealth，andprestigebetweenthenortherncountryanditssouthernfellows，suggestionsofthesortcouldbemadepracticableonlybylettingtheUnitedStatesdowhateveritmightthinkneedfultoaccomplishtheobjectswhichitsought。ObviouslytheHispanicnations，singlyorcollectively，wouldhardlyventuretotakeanysuchactionwithinthebordersoftheUnitedStatesitself，if，forexample，itfailedtomaintainwhat，intheiropinion，was"arepublicanformofgovernment。"AfullacceptanceoftheplanaccordinglywouldhaveamountedtoarecognitionofAmericanoverlordship，andthistheywerenaturallynotdisposedtoadmit。
　　ThecommonperilsanddutiesconfrontingtheAmericasasaresultoftheGreatWar，however，madeclosecooperationbetweentheHispanicrepublicsandtheUnitedStatesuptoacertainpointindispensable。TowardthattransatlanticstruggletheattitudeofallthenationsoftheNewWorldattheoutsetwassubstantiallythesame。Thoughstronglysympatheticonthewholewiththe"Allies"andnotablywithFrance，thesoutherncountriesneverthelessdeclaredtheirneutrality。Morethanthat，theytriedtoconvertneutralityintoaPan—Americanpolicy，insteadofregardingitasanofficialattitudetobeadoptedbytherepublicsseparately。Thuswhentheconflictoverseasbegantoinjuretherightsofneutrals，ArgentinaandothernationsurgedthatthecountriesoftheNewWorldjointlyagreetodeclarethatdirectmaritimecommercebetweenAmericanlandsshouldbeconsideredas"inter—Americancoastwisetrade，"andthatthemerchantshipsengagedinit，whatevertheflagunderwhichtheysailed，shouldbelookeduponasneutral。ThoughtheSouthAmericancountriesfailedtoenlistthesupportoftheirnorthernneighborinthisbolddeparturefrominternationalprecedent，theyfoundsomecompensationfortheirdisappointmentintheclosercommercialandfinancialrelationswhichtheyestablishedwiththeUnitedStates。
　　BecauseofthedependenceoftheHispanicnations，andespeciallythoseofthesoutherngroup，ontheintimacyoftheireconomictieswiththebelligerentsoverseas，theysufferedfromtheravagesofthestrugglemoreperhapsthanotherlandsoutsideofEurope。Negotiationsforprospectiveloansweredropped。
　　Industriesweresuspended，workonpublicimprovementswaschecked，andcommercebroughtalmosttoastandstill。Astherevenuesfelloffandreadymoneybecamescarce，drasticmeasureshadtobedevisedtomeetthefinancialstrain。Fortheprotectionofcredit，bankholidaysweredeclared，stockexchangeswereclosed，moratoriaweresetupinnearlyallthecountries，taxesanddutieswereincreased，radicalreductionsinexpenditurewereundertaken，andinafewcaseslargequantitiesofpapermoneywereissued。
　　WiththeEuropeanmarketthuswhollyorpartiallycutoff，theHispanicrepublicswereforcedtosupplytheconsequentshortagewithmanufacturedarticlesandothergoodsfromtheUnitedStatesandtosendthithertheirrawmaterialsinexchange。Totheirnorthernneighbortheyhadtoturnalsoforpecuniaryaid。A
　　Pan—AmericanfinancialconferencewasheldatWashingtonin1915，andaninternationalhighcommissionwasappointedtocarryitsrecommendationsintoeffect。GraduallymostoftheHispaniccountriescametoshowafavorabletradebalance。Then，asthewardrewintoitsfourthyear，severalofthemevenbegantoenjoygreatprosperity。ThatPan—Americanismhadnotmeantmuchmorethancooperationforeconomicendsseemedevidentwhen，onApril6，1917，theUnitedStatesdeclaredwaronGermany。Insteadoffollowingspontaneouslyinthewakeoftheirgreatnorthernneighbor，theHispanicrepublicsweredividedbyconflictingcurrentsofopinionandhesitatedastotheirpropercourseofprocedure。WhileamajorityofthemexpressedapprovalofwhattheUnitedStateshaddone，andwhileUruguayforitspartassertedthat"noAmericancountry，whichindefenseofitsownrightsshouldfinditselfinastateofwarwithnationsofothercontinents，wouldbetreatedasabelligerent，"MexicoveeredalmosttotheotherextremebyproposingthattherepublicsofAmericaagreetolayanembargoontheshipmentofmunitionstothewarringpowers。
　　Asamatteroffact，onlysevenoutofthenineteenHispanicnationssawfittoimitatetheexamplesetbytheirnorthernneighborandtodeclarewaronGermany。ThesewereCuba——inviewofits"dutytowardtheUnitedStates，"Panama，Guatemala，Brazil，Honduras，Nicaragua，andCostaRica。SincetheDominicanRepublicatthetimewasunderAmericanmilitarycontrol，itwasnotinapositiontochooseitscourse。FourcountriesEcuador，Peru，Bolivia，andUruguay——brokeoffdiplomaticrelationswithGermany。Theothersevenrepublics——Mexico，Salvador，Colombia，Venezuela，Chile，Argentina，andParaguay——continuedtheirformalneutrality。InspiteofadisclosuremadebytheUnitedStatesofinsultingandthreateningutterancesonthepartoftheGermancharged’affairesinArgentina，whichledtopopularoutbreaksatthecapitalandinducedthenationalCongresstodeclareinfavorofaseveranceofdiplomaticrelationswiththatfunctionary’sGovernment，thePresidentoftherepublicstoodfirminhisresolutiontomaintainneutrality。IfPan—AmericanismhadeverinvolvedtheideaofpoliticalcooperationamongthenationsoftheNewWorld，itbrokedownjustwhenitmighthaveservedthegreatestofpurposes。Eventhe"ABC"combinationitselfhadapparentlybeenshattered。
　　AcenturyandmorehadnowpassedsincetheSpanishandPortuguesepeoplesoftheNewWorldhadachievedtheirindependence。Eighteenpoliticalchildrenofvarioussizesandstagesofadvancement，orbackwardness，werebornofSpaininAmerica，andoneacknowledgedthematernityofPortugal。BigBrazilhasalwaysmaintainedthehappiestrelationswiththelittlemotherinEurope，whostillwatcheswithpridethegrowthofherstrappingyoungster。BetweenSpainandherdescendants，however，animosityenduredformanyyearsaftertheyhadthrownofftheparentalyoke。Yetoflate，muchhasbeendoneonbothsidestorendertherelationshipcordial。ThegracefulactofSpaininsendingthemuch—belovedInfantaIsabeltorepresentherinArgentinaandChileatthecelebrationofthecentennialanniversaryoftheircryforindependence，andtowishthemGodspeedontheironwardjourney，wastypicaloftheyearningofthemothercountryforherchildrenoverseas，despitethelapseofyearsandpoliticalties。So，too，herablestmenofintellecthavestrivennoblyandwithmarkedsuccesstoreviveamongthemasenseoffilialaffectionandgratitudeforallthatSpaincontributedtomoldthemindandheartofherkindredindistantlands。Ontheirpart，theHispanicAmericanshavecometoaclearerconsciousnessofthefactthatonthecontinentsoftheNewWorldtherearetwodistincttypesofcivilization，withallthateachconnotesofdifferencesinrace，psychology，tradition，language，andcustom——theirown，andthatrepresentedbytheUnitedStates。Appreciativethoughthesoutherncountriesareoftheirnorthernneighbor，theyclingneverthelesstotheirheritagefromSpainandPortugalinwhateverseemsconducivetothemaintenanceoftheirownidealsoflifeandthought。
　　BIBLIOGRAPHICALNOTE
　　ForanythinglikeadetailedstudyofthehistoryoftheHispanicnationsofAmerica，obviouslyonemustconsultworkswritteninSpanishandPortuguese。Therearemanyimportantbooks，also，inFrenchandGerman;but，withfewexceptions，therecommendationsforthegeneralreaderwillbelimitedtoaccountsinEnglish。
　　AveryusefuloutlineandguidetorecentliteratureonthesubjectisW。W。Pierson，Jr。，"ASyllabusofLatin—AmericanHistory"（ChapelHill，NorthCarolina，1917）。AbriefintroductiontothehistoryandpresentaspectsofHispanicAmericancivilizationisW。R。Shepherd，"LatinAmerica"（NewYork，1914）。ThebestgeneralaccountsoftheSpanishandPortuguesecolonialsystemswillbefoundinCharlesdeLannoyandHermanvanderLinden，"HistoiredeL’ExpansionColonialedesPeuplesEuropeens：PortugaletEspagne"（BrusselsandParis，1907），andKurtSimon，"SpanienandPortugalalsSeeandKolonialmdchte"（Hamburg，1913）。FortheSpanishcolonialregimealone，E。G。Bourne，"SpaininAmerica"（NewYork，1904）isexcellent。ThesituationinsouthernSouthAmericatowardthecloseofSpanishruleiswelldescribedinBernardMoses，"SouthAmericaontheEveofEmancipation"（NewYork，1908）。Amongcontemporaryaccountsofthatperiod，AlexandervonHumboldtandAimeBonpland，"PersonalNarrativeofTravelstotheEquinoctialRegionsofAmerica"，3vols。（London，1881）;AlexandervonHumboldt，"PoliticalEssayontheKingdomofNewSpain"，4vols。
　　（London，1811—1822）;andF。R。J。dePons，"TravelsinSouthAmerica"，2vols。（London，1807），areauthoritative，evenifnotalwayseasytoread。
　　Onthewarsofindependence，seethescholarlytreatisebyW。S。
　　Robertson，"RiseoftheSpanish—AmericanRepublicsasToldintheLivesoftheirLiberators"（NewYork，1918）;BartolomeMitre，"TheEmancipationofSouthAmerica"（London，1893）——acondensedtranslationoftheauthor’s"HistoriadeSanMartin"，andwhollyfavorabletothatpatriot;andF。L。Petre，"SimonBolivar"
　　（London，1910）——impartialattheexpenseoftheimagination。
　　Amongthenumerouscontemporaryaccounts，thefollowingwillbefoundserviceable：W。D。Robinson，"MemoirsoftheMexicanRevolution"（Philadelphia，1890）;J。R。Poinsett，"NotesonMexico"（London，1825）;H。M。Brackenridge，"VoyagetoSouthAmerica，2vols。（London，1820）;W。B。Stevenson，"HistoricalandDescriptiveNarrativeofTwentyYears’ResidenceinSouthAmerica"，3vols。（London，1895）;J。Miller，"MemoirsofGeneralMillerintheServiceoftheRepublicofPeru"，2vols。（London，1828）;H。L。V。DucoudrayHolstein，"MemoirsofSimonBolivar"，2
　　vols。（London，1830），andJohnArmitage，"HistoryofBrazil"，2
　　vols。（London，1836）。
　　Thebestbooksonthehistoryoftherepublicsasawholesincetheattainmentofindependence，andwrittenfromanHispanicAmericanviewpoint，areF。GarciaCalderon，"LatinAmerica，itsRiseandProgress"（NewYork，1913），andM。deOliveiraLima，"TheEvolutionofBrazilComparedwiththatofSpanishandAnglo—SaxonAmerica"（StanfordUniversity，California，1914）。ThecountriesofCentralAmericaaredealtwithbyW。H。Koebel，"CentralAmerica"（NewYork，1917），andofSouthAmericabyT。C。
　　Dawson，"TheSouthAmericanRepublics"，2vols。（NewYork，1903—1904），andC。E。Akers，"HistoryofSouthAmerica"（London，1912），thoughinamannerthatoftenconfusesratherthanenlightens。
　　Amongthehistoriesanddescriptionsofindividualcountries，arrangedinalphabeticalorder，thefollowingareprobablythemostusefultothegeneralreader：W。A。Hirst，"Argentina"（NewYork，1910）;PaulWalle，"Bolivia"（NewYork，1914）;PierreDenis，"Brazil"（NewYork，1911）;G。F。S。Elliot，"Chile"（NewYork，1907）;P。J。Eder，"Colombia"（NewYork，1913）;J。B。
　　Calvo，"TheRepublicofCostaRica"（Chicago，1890）;A。G。
　　Robinson，"Cuba，OldandNew"（NewYork，1915）;OttoSchoenrich，"SantoDomingo"（NewYork，1918）;C。R。Enock，"Ecuador"（NewYork，1914）;C。R。Enock，"Mexico"（NewYork，1909）;W。H。
　　Koebel，"Paraguay"（NewYork，1917）;C。R。Enock，"Peru"（NewYork，1910）;W。H。Koebel，"Uruguay"（NewYork，1911），andL。V。
　　Dalton，"Venezuela"（NewYork，1912）。Ofthese，thebooksbyRobinsonandEder，onCubaandColombia，respectively，arethemostreadableandreliable。
　　Foradditionalbibliographicalreferencessee"SouthAmerica"andthearticlesonindividualcountriesin"TheEncyclopaediaBritannica"，11thedition，andinMarrionWilcoxandG。E。Rines，"EncyclopediaofLatinAmerica"（NewYork，1917）。
　　OfcontemporaryorlaterworksdescriptiveofthelifeandtimesofeminentcharactersinthehistoryoftheHispanicAmericanrepublicssince1830，afewmaybetakenasrepresentative。
　　Rosas：J。A。King，"Twenty—fourYearsintheArgentineRepublic"
　　（London，1846），andWoodbineParish，"BuenosAyresandtheProvincesoftheRiodelaPlata"（London，1850）。Francia：J。R。
　　Rengger，"ReignofDr。JosephGaspardRoderick[！]deFranciainParaguay"（London，1827）;J。P。andW。P。Robertson，"LettersonSouthAmerica"，3vols。（London，1843），andE。L。White，"ElSupremo"，anovel（NewYork，1916）。SantaAnna：WaddyThompson，"RecollectionsofMexico"（NewYork，1846），andF。E。Ingles，CalderondelaBarca，"LifeinMexico"（London，1859。）。Juarez：
　　U。R。Burke，"LifeofBenitoJuarez"（London，1894）。SolanoLopez：T。J。Hutchinson，"Parana;withIncidentsoftheParaguayanWarandSouthAmericanRecollections"（London，1868）;
　　GeorgeThompson，"TheWarinParaguay"（London，1869）;R。F。
　　Burton，"LettersfromtheBattle—fieldsofParaguay"（London，1870），andC。A。Washburn，"TheHistoryofParaguay"，2vols。
　　（Boston，1871）。PedroII：J。C。FletcherandD。P。Kidder，"BrazilandtheBrazilians"（Boston，1879），andFrankBennett，"FortyYearsinBrazil"（London，1914）。GarciaMoreno：FrederickHassaurek，"FourYearsamongSpanishAmericans"（NewYork，1867）。
　　GuzmanBlanco：C。D。Dance，"RecollectionsofFourYearsinVenezuela"（London，1876）。Diaz：JamesCreelman，"Diaz，MasterofMexico"（NewYork，1911）。Balmaceda：M。H。Hervey，"DarkDaysinChile"（London，1891—1890。Carranza：L。GutierrezdeLaraandEdgcumbPinchon，"TheMexicanPeople：theirStruggleforFreedom"
　　（NewYork，1914）。