NicoloMachiavelli，bornatFlorenceon3rdMay1469。From1494to1512heldanofficialpostatFlorencewhichincludeddiplomaticmissionstovariousEuropeancourts。
ImprisonedinFlorence，1512;laterexiledandreturnedtoSanCasciano。DiedatFlorenceon22ndJune1527。
INTRODUCTION
NicoloMachiavelliwasbornatFlorenceon3rdMay1469。HewasthesecondsonofBernardodiNicoloMachiavelli，alawyerofsomerepute，andofBartolommeadiStefanoNelli，hiswife。BothparentsweremembersoftheoldFlorentinenobility。
Hislifefallsnaturallyintothreeperiods，eachofwhichsingularlyenoughconstitutesadistinctandimportanterainthehistoryofFlorence。HisyouthwasconcurrentwiththegreatnessofFlorenceasanItalianpowerundertheguidanceofLorenzode’Medici，IlMagnifico。ThedownfalloftheMediciinFlorenceoccurredin1494，inwhichyearMachiavellienteredthepublicservice。DuringhisofficialcareerFlorencewasfreeunderthegovernmentofaRepublic，whichlasteduntil1512，whentheMedicireturnedtopower，andMachiavellilosthisoffice。TheMediciagainruledFlorencefrom1512until1527，whentheywereoncemoredrivenout。ThiswastheperiodofMachiavelli’sliteraryactivityandincreasinginfluence;buthedied，withinafewweeksoftheexpulsionoftheMedici，on22ndJune1527，inhisfifty—eighthyear，withouthavingregainedoffice。
YOUTH
Aet。1—25——1469—94
AlthoughthereislittlerecordedoftheyouthofMachiavelli，theFlorenceofthosedaysissowellknownthattheearlyenvironmentofthisrepresentativecitizenmaybeeasilyimagined。Florencehasbeendescribedasacitywithtwooppositecurrentsoflife，onedirectedbytheferventandaustereSavonarola，theotherbythesplendour—
lovingLorenzo。Savonarola’sinfluenceupontheyoungMachiavellimusthavebeenslight，foralthoughatonetimehewieldedimmensepoweroverthefortunesofFlorence，heonlyfurnishedMachiavelliwithasubjectofagibein"ThePrince，"whereheiscitedasanexampleofanunarmedprophetwhocametoabadend。WhereasthemagnificenceoftheMediceanruleduringthelifeofLorenzoappearedtohaveimpressedMachiavellistrongly，forhefrequentlyrecurstoitinhiswritings，anditistoLorenzo’sgrandsonthathededicates"ThePrince。"
Machiavelli，inhis"HistoryofFlorence，"givesusapictureoftheyoungmenamongwhomhisyouthwaspassed。Hewrites："Theywerefreerthantheirforefathersindressandliving，andspentmoreinotherkindsofexcesses，consumingtheirtimeandmoneyinidleness，gaming，andwomen;theirchiefaimwastoappearwelldressedandtospeakwithwitandacuteness，whilsthewhocouldwoundothersthemostcleverlywasthoughtthewisest。"InalettertohissonGuido，Machiavellishowswhyyouthshouldavailitselfofitsopportunitiesforstudy，andleadsustoinferthathisownyouthhadbeensooccupied。Hewrites："Ihavereceivedyourletter，whichhasgivenmethegreatestpleasure，especiallybecauseyoutellmeyouarequiterestoredinhealth，thanwhichIcouldhavenobetternews;forifGodgrantlifetoyou，andtome，Ihopetomakeagoodmanofyouifyouarewillingtodoyourshare。"Then，writingofanewpatron，hecontinues："Thiswillturnoutwellforyou，butitisnecessaryforyoutostudy;since，then，youhavenolongertheexcuseofillness，takepainstostudylettersandmusic，foryouseewhathonourisdonetomeforthelittleskillIhave。Therefore，myson，ifyouwishtopleaseme，andtobringsuccessandhonourtoyourself，dorightandstudy，becauseotherswillhelpyouifyouhelpyourself。"
OFFICE
Aet。25—43——1494—1512
ThesecondperiodofMachiavelli’slifewasspentintheserviceofthefreeRepublicofFlorence，whichflourished，asstatedabove，fromtheexpulsionoftheMediciin1494untiltheirreturnin1512。AfterservingfouryearsinoneofthepublicofficeshewasappointedChancellorandSecretarytotheSecondChancery，theTenofLibertyandPeace。HereweareonfirmgroundwhendealingwiththeeventsofMachiavelli’slife，forduringthistimehetookaleadingpartintheaffairsoftheRepublic，andwehaveitsdecrees，records，anddispatchestoguideus，aswellashisownwritings。Amererecapitulationofafewofhistransactionswiththestatesmenandsoldiersofhistimegivesafairindicationofhisactivities，andsuppliesthesourcesfromwhichhedrewtheexperiencesandcharacterswhichillustrate"ThePrince。"
Hisfirstmissionwasin1499toCatherinaSforza，"myladyofForli"
of"ThePrince，"fromwhoseconductandfatehedrewthemoralthatitisfarbettertoearntheconfidenceofthepeoplethantorelyonfortresses。ThisisaverynoticeableprincipleinMachiavelli，andisurgedbyhiminmanywaysasamatterofvitalimportancetoprinces。
In1500hewassenttoFrancetoobtaintermsfromLouisXIIforcontinuingthewaragainstPisa：thiskingitwaswho，inhisconductofaffairsinItaly，committedthefivecapitalerrorsinstatecraftsummarizedin"ThePrince，"andwasconsequentlydrivenout。He，also，itwaswhomadethedissolutionofhismarriageaconditionofsupporttoPopeAlexanderVI;whichleadsMachiavellitoreferthosewhourgethatsuchpromisesshouldbekepttowhathehaswrittenconcerningthefaithofprinces。
Machiavelli’spubliclifewaslargelyoccupiedwitheventsarisingoutoftheambitionsofPopeAlexanderVIandhisson，CesareBorgia，theDukeValentino，andthesecharactersfillalargespaceof"ThePrince。"Machiavellineverhesitatestocitetheactionsofthedukeforthebenefitofusurperswhowishtokeepthestatestheyhaveseized;hecan，indeed，findnopreceptstooffersogoodasthepatternofCesareBorgia’sconduct，insomuchthatCesareisacclaimedbysomecriticsasthe"hero"of"ThePrince。"Yetin"ThePrince"thedukeisinpointoffactcitedasatypeofthemanwhorisesonthefortuneofothers，andfallswiththem;whotakeseverycoursethatmightbeexpectedfromaprudentmanbutthecoursewhichwillsavehim;whoispreparedforalleventualitiesbuttheonewhichhappens;
andwho，whenallhisabilitiesfailtocarryhimthrough，exclaimsthatitwasnothisfault，butanextraordinaryandunforeseenfatality。
OnthedeathofPiusIII，in1503，MachiavelliwassenttoRometowatchtheelectionofhissuccessor，andtherehesawCesareBorgiacheatedintoallowingthechoiceoftheCollegetofallonGiulianodelleRovere（JuliusII），whowasoneofthecardinalsthathadmostreasontofeartheduke。Machiavelli，whencommentingonthiselection，saysthathewhothinksnewfavourswillcausegreatpersonagestoforgetoldinjuriesdeceiveshimself。JuliusdidnotrestuntilhehadruinedCesare。
ItwastoJuliusIIthatMachiavelliwassentin1506，whenthatpontiffwascommencinghisenterpriseagainstBologna;whichhebroughttoasuccessfulissue，ashedidmanyofhisotheradventures，owingchieflytohisimpetuouscharacter。ItisinreferencetoPopeJuliusthatMachiavellimoralizesontheresemblancebetweenFortuneandwomen，andconcludesthatitistheboldratherthanthecautiousmanthatwillwinandholdthemboth。
ItisimpossibletofollowherethevaryingfortunesoftheItalianstates，whichin1507werecontrolledbyFrance，Spain，andGermany，withresultsthathavelastedtoourday;weareconcernedwiththoseevents，andwiththethreegreatactorsinthem，sofaronlyastheyimpingeonthepersonalityofMachiavelli。HehadseveralmeetingswithLouisXIIofFrance，andhisestimateofthatmonarch’scharacterhasalreadybeenalludedto。MachiavellihaspaintedFerdinandofAragonasthemanwhoaccomplishedgreatthingsunderthecloakofreligion，butwhoinrealityhadnomercy，faith，humanity，orintegrity;andwho，hadheallowedhimselftobeinfluencedbysuchmotives，wouldhavebeenruined。TheEmperorMaximilianwasoneofthemostinterestingmenoftheage，andhischaracterhasbeendrawnbymanyhands;butMachiavelli，whowasanenvoyathiscourtin1507—8，revealsthesecretofhismanyfailureswhenhedescribeshimasasecretiveman，withoutforceofcharacter——ignoringthehumanagenciesnecessarytocarryhisschemesintoeffect，andneverinsistingonthefulfilmentofhiswishes。
TheremainingyearsofMachiavelli’sofficialcareerwerefilledwitheventsarisingoutoftheLeagueofCambrai，madein1508betweenthethreegreatEuropeanpowersalreadymentionedandthepope，withtheobjectofcrushingtheVenetianRepublic。ThisresultwasattainedinthebattleofVaila，whenVenicelostinonedayallthatshehadwonineighthundredyears。Florencehadadifficultparttoplayduringtheseevents，complicatedastheywerebythefeudwhichbrokeoutbetweenthepopeandtheFrench，becausefriendshipwithFrancehaddictatedtheentirepolicyoftheRepublic。When，in1511，JuliusII
finallyformedtheHolyLeagueagainstFrance，andwiththeassistanceoftheSwissdrovetheFrenchoutofItaly，FlorencelayatthemercyofthePope，andhadtosubmittohisterms，oneofwhichwasthattheMedicishouldberestored。ThereturnoftheMedicitoFlorenceon1stSeptember1512，andtheconsequentfalloftheRepublic，wasthesignalforthedismissalofMachiavelliandhisfriends，andthusputanendtohispubliccareer，for，aswehaveseen，hediedwithoutregainingoffice。
LITERATUREANDDEATH
Aet。43—58——1512—27
OnthereturnoftheMedici，Machiavelli，whoforafewweekshadvainlyhopedtoretainhisofficeunderthenewmastersofFlorence，wasdismissedbydecreedated7thNovember1512。ShortlyafterthishewasaccusedofcomplicityinanabortiveconspiracyagainsttheMedici，imprisoned，andputtothequestionbytorture。ThenewMediceanpeople，LeoX，procuredhisrelease，andheretiredtohissmallpropertyatSanCasciano，nearFlorence，wherehedevotedhimselftoliterature。InalettertoFrancescoVettori，dated13thDecember1513，hehasleftaveryinterestingdescriptionofhislifeatthisperiod，whichelucidateshismethodsandhismotivesinwriting"ThePrince。"Afterdescribinghisdailyoccupationswithhisfamilyandneighbours，hewrites："Theeveningbeingcome，Ireturnhomeandgotomystudy;attheentranceIpulloffmypeasant—
clothes，coveredwithdustanddirt，andputonmynoblecourtdress，andthusbecominglyre—clothedIpassintotheancientcourtsofthemenofold，where，beinglovinglyreceivedbythem，Iamfedwiththatfoodwhichisminealone;whereIdonothesitatetospeakwiththem，andtoaskforthereasonoftheiractions，andtheyintheirbenignityanswerme;andforfourhoursIfeelnoweariness，Iforgeteverytrouble，povertydoesnotdismay，deathdoesnotterrifyme;I
ampossessedentirelybythosegreatmen。AndbecauseDantesays：
Knowledgedothcomeoflearningwellretained，Unfruitfulelse，IhavenoteddownwhatIhavegainedfromtheirconversation，andhavecomposedasmallworkon’Principalities，’whereIpourmyselfoutasfullyasIcaninmeditationonthesubject，discussingwhataprincipalityis，whatkindsthereare，howtheycanbeacquired，howtheycanbekept，whytheyarelost：andifanyofmyfancieseverpleasedyou，thisoughtnottodispleaseyou：andtoaprince，especiallytoanewone，itshouldbewelcome：thereforeIdedicateittohisMagnificenceGiuliano。FilippoCasavecchiohasseenit;hewillbeabletotellyouwhatisinit，andofthediscoursesIhavehadwithhim;nevertheless，Iamstillenrichingandpolishingit。"
The"littlebook"sufferedmanyvicissitudesbeforeattainingtheforminwhichithasreachedus。Variousmentalinfluenceswereatworkduringitscomposition;itstitleandpatronwerechanged;andforsomeunknownreasonitwasfinallydedicatedtoLorenzode’Medici。
AlthoughMachiavellidiscussedwithCasavecchiowhetheritshouldbesentorpresentedinpersontothepatron，thereisnoevidencethatLorenzoeverreceivedorevenreadit：hecertainlynevergaveMachiavellianyemployment。AlthoughitwasplagiarizedduringMachiavelli’slifetime，"ThePrince"wasneverpublishedbyhim，anditstextisstilldisputable。
MachiavelliconcludeshislettertoVettorithus："Andastothislittlething[hisbook]，whenithasbeenreaditwillbeseenthatduringthefifteenyearsIhavegiventothestudyofstatecraftI
haveneithersleptnoridled;andmenoughtevertodesiretobeservedbyonewhohasreapedexperienceattheexpenseofothers。Andofmyloyaltynonecoulddoubt，becausehavingalwayskeptfaithI
couldnotnowlearnhowtobreakit;forhewhohasbeenfaithfulandhonest，asIhave，cannotchangehisnature;andmypovertyisawitnesstomyhonesty。"
BeforeMachiavellihadgot"ThePrince"offhishandshecommencedhis"DiscourseontheFirstDecadeofTitusLivius，"whichshouldbereadconcurrentlywith"ThePrince。"Theseandseveralminorworksoccupiedhimuntiltheyear1518，whenheacceptedasmallcommissiontolookaftertheaffairsofsomeFlorentinemerchantsatGenoa。In1519theMediceanrulersofFlorencegrantedafewpoliticalconcessionstohercitizens，andMachiavelliwithotherswasconsulteduponanewconstitutionunderwhichtheGreatCouncilwastoberestored;butononepretextoranotheritwasnotpromulgated。
In1520theFlorentinemerchantsagainhadrecoursetoMachiavellitosettletheirdifficultieswithLucca，butthisyearwaschieflyremarkableforhisre—entryintoFlorentineliterarysociety，wherehewasmuchsoughtafter，andalsofortheproductionofhis"ArtofWar。"ItwasinthesameyearthathereceivedacommissionattheinstanceofCardinalde’Medicitowritethe"HistoryofFlorence，"ataskwhichoccupiedhimuntil1525。HisreturntopopularfavourmayhavedeterminedtheMedicitogivehimthisemployment，foranoldwriterobservesthat"anablestatesmanoutofwork，likeahugewhale，willendeavourtooverturntheshipunlesshehasanemptycasktoplaywith。"
Whenthe"HistoryofFlorence"wasfinished，MachiavellitookittoRomeforpresentationtohispatron，Giulianode’Medici，whohadinthemeanwhilebecomepopeunderthetitleofClementVII。Itissomewhatremarkablethat，as，in1513，Machiavellihadwritten"ThePrince"fortheinstructionoftheMediciaftertheyhadjustregainedpowerinFlorence，so，in1525，hededicatedthe"HistoryofFlorence"
totheheadofthefamilywhenitsruinwasnowathand。InthatyearthebattleofPaviadestroyedtheFrenchruleinItaly，andleftFrancisIaprisonerinthehandsofhisgreatrival，CharlesV。ThiswasfollowedbythesackofRome，uponthenewsofwhichthepopularpartyatFlorencethrewofftheyokeoftheMedici，whowereoncemorebanished。
MachiavelliwasabsentfromFlorenceatthistime，buthastenedhisreturn，hopingtosecurehisformerofficeofsecretarytothe"TenofLibertyandPeace。"UnhappilyhewastakenillsoonafterhereachedFlorence，wherehediedon22ndJune1527。
THEMANANDHISWORKS
NoonecansaywherethebonesofMachiavellirest，butmodernFlorencehasdecreedhimastatelycenotaphinSantaCroce，bythesideofhermostfamoussons;recognizingthat，whateverothernationsmayhavefoundinhisworks，ItalyfoundinthemtheideaofherunityandthegermsofherrenaissanceamongthenationsofEurope。Whilstitisidletoprotestagainsttheworld—wideandevilsignificationofhisname，itmaybepointedoutthattheharshconstructionofhisdoctrinewhichthissinisterreputationimplieswasunknowntohisownday，andthattheresearchesofrecenttimeshaveenabledustointerprethimmorereasonably。Itisduetotheseinquiriesthattheshapeofan"unholynecromancer，"whichsolonghauntedmen’svision，hasbeguntofade。
Machiavelliwasundoubtedlyamanofgreatobservation，acuteness，andindustry;notingwithappreciativeeyewhateverpassedbeforehim，andwithhissupremeliterarygiftturningittoaccountinhisenforcedretirementfromaffairs。Hedoesnotpresenthimself，norishedepictedbyhiscontemporaries，asatypeofthatrarecombination，thesuccessfulstatesmanandauthor，forheappearstohavebeenonlymoderatelyprosperousinhisseveralembassiesandpoliticalemployments。HewasmisledbyCatherinaSforza，ignoredbyLouisXII，overawedbyCesareBorgia;severalofhisembassieswerequitebarrenofresults;hisattemptstofortifyFlorencefailed，andthesoldierythatheraisedastonishedeverybodybytheircowardice。Intheconductofhisownaffairshewastimidandtime—serving;hedarednotappearbythesideofSoderini，towhomheowedsomuch，forfearofcompromisinghimself;hisconnectionwiththeMediciwasopentosuspicion，andGiulianoappearstohaverecognizedhisrealfortewhenhesethimtowritethe"HistoryofFlorence，"ratherthanemployhiminthestate。Anditisontheliterarysideofhischaracter，andtherealone，thatwefindnoweaknessandnofailure。
Althoughthelightofalmostfourcenturieshasbeenfocusedon"ThePrince，"itsproblemsarestilldebatableandinteresting，becausetheyaretheeternalproblemsbetweentheruledandtheirrulers。Suchastheyare，itsethicsarethoseofMachiavelli’scontemporaries;yettheycannotbesaidtobeoutofdatesolongasthegovernmentsofEuroperelyonmaterialratherthanonmoralforces。ItshistoricalincidentsandpersonagesbecomeinterestingbyreasonoftheuseswhichMachiavellimakesofthemtoillustratehistheoriesofgovernmentandconduct。
LeavingoutofconsiderationthosemaximsofstatewhichstillfurnishsomeEuropeanandeasternstatesmenwithprinciplesofaction，"ThePrince"isbestrewnwithtruthsthatcanbeprovedateveryturn。Menarestillthedupesoftheirsimplicityandgreed，astheywereinthedaysofAlexanderVI。ThecloakofreligionstillconcealstheviceswhichMachiavellilaidbareinthecharacterofFerdinandofAragon。
Menwillnotlookatthingsastheyreallyare，butastheywishthemtobe——andareruined。Inpoliticstherearenoperfectlysafecourses;prudenceconsistsinchoosingtheleastdangerousones。Then——topasstoahigherplane——Machiavellireiteratesthat，althoughcrimesmaywinanempire，theydonotwinglory。Necessarywarsarejustwars，andthearmsofanationarehallowedwhenithasnootherresourcebuttofight。
ItisthecryofafarlaterdaythanMachiavelli’sthatgovernmentshouldbeelevatedintoalivingmoralforce，capableofinspiringthepeoplewithajustrecognitionofthefundamentalprinciplesofsociety;tothis"highargument""ThePrince"contributesbutlittle。
Machiavellialwaysrefusedtowriteeitherofmenorofgovernmentsotherwisethanashefoundthem，andhewriteswithsuchskillandinsightthathisworkisofabidingvalue。Butwhatinvests"ThePrince"withmorethanamerelyartisticorhistoricalinterestistheincontrovertibletruththatitdealswiththegreatprincipleswhichstillguidenationsandrulersintheirrelationshipwitheachotherandtheirneighbours。
Intranslating"ThePrince"myaimhasbeentoachieveatallcostsanexactliteralrenderingoftheoriginal，ratherthanafluentparaphraseadaptedtothemodernnotionsofstyleandexpression。
Machiavelliwasnofacilephrasemonger;theconditionsunderwhichhewroteobligedhimtoweigheveryword;histhemeswerelofty，hissubstancegrave，hismannernoblyplainandserious。"Quiseofuitunquaminpartiundisrebus，indefiniendis，inexplanandispressior？"
In"ThePrince，"itmaybetrulysaid，thereisreasonassignable，notonlyforeveryword，butforthepositionofeveryword。ToanEnglishmanofShakespeare’stimethetranslationofsuchatreatisewasinsomewaysacomparativelyeasytask，forinthosetimesthegeniusoftheEnglishmorenearlyresembledthatoftheItalianlanguage;totheEnglishmanofto—dayitisnotsosimple。Totakeasingleexample：theword"intrattenere，"employedbyMachiavellitoindicatethepolicyadoptedbytheRomanSenatetowardstheweakerstatesofGreece，wouldbyanElizabethanbecorrectlyrendered"entertain，"andeverycontemporaryreaderwouldunderstandwhatwasmeantbysayingthat"RomeentertainedtheAetoliansandtheAchaeanswithoutaugmentingtheirpower。"Butto—daysuchaphrasewouldseemobsoleteandambiguous，ifnotunmeaning：wearecompelledtosaythat"RomemaintainedfriendlyrelationswiththeAetolians，"etc。，usingfourwordstodotheworkofone。IhavetriedtopreservethepithybrevityoftheItaliansofaraswasconsistentwithanabsolutefidelitytothesense。IftheresultbeanoccasionalasperityIcanonlyhopethatthereader，inhiseagernesstoreachtheauthor’smeaning，mayoverlooktheroughnessoftheroadthatleadshimtoit。
ThefollowingisalistoftheworksofMachiavelli：
Principalworks。DiscorsosopralecosediPisa，1499;DelmododitrattareipopolidellaValdichianaribellati，1502;DelmodotenutodalducaValentinonell’ammazzareVitellozzoVitelli，OliverottodaFermo，etc。，1502;Discorsosopralaprovisionedeldanaro，1502;
Decennaleprimo（poeminterzarima），1506;Ritrattidellecosedell’
Alemagna，1508—12;Decennalesecondo，1509;RitrattidellecosediFrancia，1510;DiscorsisopralaprimadecadiT。Livio，3vols。，1512—17;IlPrincipe，1513;Andria，comedytranslatedfromTerence，1513（？）;Mandragola，prosecomedyinfiveacts，withprologueinverse，1513;Dellalingua（dialogue），1514;Clizia，comedyinprose，1515（？）;Belfagorarcidiavolo（novel），1515;Asinod’oro（poeminterzarima），1517;Dell’artedellaguerra，1519—20;DiscorsosoprailriformarelostatodiFirenze，1520;SommariodellecosedellacittadiLucca，1520;VitadiCastruccioCastracanidaLucca，1520;Istoriefiorentine，8books，1521—5;Frammentistorici，1525。
OtherpoemsincludeSonetti，Canzoni，Ottave，andCanticarnascialeschi。
Editions。Aldo，Venice，1546;dellaTertina，1550;Cambiagi，Florence，6vols。，1782—5;deiClassici，Milan，101813;Silvestri，9vols。，1820—2;Passerini，Fanfani，Milanesi，6vols。onlypublished，1873—7。
Minorworks。Ed。F。L。Polidori，1852;Letterefamiliari，ed。E。
Alvisi，1883，2editions，onewithexcisions;CreditedWritings，ed。
G。Canestrini，1857;LetterstoF。Vettori，seeA。Ridolfi，PensieriintornoalloscopodiN。MachiavellinellibroIlPrincipe，etc。;D。
Ferrara，ThePrivateCorrespondenceofNicoloMachiavelli，1929。
DEDICATION
TotheMagnificentLorenzoDiPieroDe’Medici：
Thosewhostrivetoobtainthegoodgracesofaprinceareaccustomedtocomebeforehimwithsuchthingsastheyholdmostprecious，orinwhichtheyseehimtakemostdelight;whenceoneoftenseeshorses，arms，clothofgold，preciousstones，andsimilarornamentspresentedtoprinces，worthyoftheirgreatness。
DesiringthereforetopresentmyselftoyourMagnificencewithsometestimonyofmydevotiontowardsyou，IhavenotfoundamongmypossessionsanythingwhichIholdmoredearthan，orvaluesomuchas，theknowledgeoftheactionsofgreatmen，acquiredbylongexperienceincontemporaryaffairs，andacontinualstudyofantiquity;which，havingreflecteduponitwithgreatandprolongeddiligence，Inowsend，digestedintoalittlevolume，toyourMagnificence。
AndalthoughImayconsiderthisworkunworthyofyourcountenance，neverthelessItrustmuchtoyourbenignitythatitmaybeacceptable，seeingthatitisnotpossibleformetomakeabettergiftthantoofferyoutheopportunityofunderstandingintheshortesttimeallthatIhavelearntinsomanyyears，andwithsomanytroublesanddangers;whichworkIhavenotembellishedwithswellingormagnificentwords，norstuffedwithroundedperiods，norwithanyextrinsicallurementsoradornmentswhatever，withwhichsomanyareaccustomedtoembellishtheirworks;forIhavewishedeitherthatnohonourshouldbegivenit，orelsethatthetruthofthematterandtheweightinessofthethemeshallmakeitacceptable。
NordoIholdwiththosewhoregarditasapresumptionifamanoflowandhumbleconditiondaretodiscussandsettletheconcernsofprinces;because，justasthosewhodrawlandscapesplacethemselvesbelowintheplaintocontemplatethenatureofthemountainsandofloftyplaces，andinordertocontemplatetheplainsplacethemselvesuponhighmountains，evensotounderstandthenatureofthepeopleitneedstobeaprince，andtounderstandthatifprincesitneedstobeofthepeople。
Takethen，yourMagnificence，thislittlegiftinthespiritinwhichIsendit;wherein，ifitbediligentlyreadandconsideredbyyou，youwilllearnmyextremedesirethatyoushouldattainthatgreatnesswhichfortuneandyourotherattributespromise。
AndifyourMagnificencefromthesummitofyourgreatnesswillsometimesturnyoureyestotheselowerregions，youwillseehowunmeritedlyIsufferagreatandcontinuedmalignityoffortune。
THEPRINCE
CHAPTERI
HOWMANYKINDSOFPRINCIPALITIESTHEREARE，ANDBYWHATMEANSTHEYAREACQUIRED
Allstates，allpowers，thathaveheldandholdruleovermenhavebeenandareeitherrepublicsorprincipalities。
Principalitiesareeitherhereditary，inwhichthefamilyhasbeenlongestablished;ortheyarenew。
Thenewareeitherentirelynew，aswasMilantoFrancescoSforza，ortheyare，asitwere，membersannexedtothehereditarystateoftheprincewhohasacquiredthem，aswasthekingdomofNaplestothatoftheKingofSpain。
Suchdominionsthusacquiredareeitheraccustomedtoliveunderaprince，ortoliveinfreedom;andareacquiredeitherbythearmsoftheprincehimself，orofothers，orelsebyfortuneorbyability。
CHAPTERII
CONCERNINGHEREDITARYPRINCIPALITIES
Iwillleaveoutalldiscussiononrepublics，inasmuchasinanotherplaceIhavewrittenofthematlength，andwilladdressmyselfonlytoprincipalities。IndoingsoIwillkeeptotheorderindicatedabove，anddiscusshowsuchprincipalitiesaretoberuledandpreserved。
Isayatoncetherearefewerdifficultiesinholdinghereditarystates，andthoselongaccustomedtothefamilyoftheirprince，thannewones;foritissufficientonlynottotransgressthecustomsofhisancestors，andtodealprudentlywithcircumstancesastheyarise，foraprinceofaveragepowerstomaintainhimselfinhisstate，unlesshebedeprivedofitbysomeextraordinaryandexcessiveforce;
andifheshouldbesodeprivedofit，wheneveranythingsinisterhappenstotheusurper，hewillregainit。
WehaveinItaly，forexample，theDukeofFerrara，whocouldnothavewithstoodtheattacksoftheVenetiansin’84，northoseofPopeJuliusin’10，unlesshehadbeenlongestablishedinhisdominions。
Forthehereditaryprincehaslesscauseandlessnecessitytooffend;
henceithappensthathewillbemoreloved;andunlessextraordinaryvicescausehimtobehated，itisreasonabletoexpectthathissubjectswillbenaturallywelldisposedtowardshim;andintheantiquityanddurationofhisrulethememoriesandmotivesthatmakeforchangearelost，foronechangealwaysleavesthetoothingforanother。
CHAPTERIII
CONCERNINGMIXEDPRINCIPALITIES
Butthedifficultiesoccurinanewprincipality。Andfirstly，ifitbenotentirelynew，butis，asitwere，amemberofastatewhich，takencollectively，maybecalledcomposite，thechangesarisechieflyfromaninherentdifficultywhichthereisinallnewprincipalities;
formenchangetheirrulerswillingly，hopingtobetterthemselves，andthishopeinducesthemtotakeuparmsagainsthimwhorules：
whereintheyaredeceived，becausetheyafterwardsfindbyexperiencetheyhavegonefrombadtoworse。Thisfollowsalsoonanothernaturalandcommonnecessity，whichalwayscausesanewprincetoburdenthosewhohavesubmittedtohimwithhissoldieryandwithinfiniteotherhardshipswhichhemustputuponhisnewacquisition。
Inthiswayyouhaveenemiesinallthosewhomyouhaveinjuredinseizingthatprincipality，andyouarenotabletokeepthosefriendswhoputyoutherebecauseofyournotbeingabletosatisfytheminthewaytheyexpected，andyoucannottakestrongmeasuresagainstthem，feelingboundtothem。For，althoughonemaybeverystronginarmedforces，yetinenteringaprovinceonehasalwaysneedofthegoodwillofthenatives。
ForthesereasonsLouistheTwelfth，KingofFrance，quicklyoccupiedMilan，andasquicklylostit;andtoturnhimoutthefirsttimeitonlyneededLodovico’sownforces;becausethosewhohadopenedthegatestohim，findingthemselvesdeceivedintheirhopesoffuturebenefit，wouldnotenduretheill—treatmentofthenewprince。Itisverytruethat，afteracquiringrebelliousprovincesasecondtime，theyarenotsolightlylostafterwards，becausetheprince，withlittlereluctance，takestheopportunityoftherebelliontopunishthedelinquents，toclearoutthesuspects，andtostrengthenhimselfintheweakestplaces。ThustocauseFrancetoloseMilanthefirsttimeitwasenoughfortheDukeLodovico[*]toraiseinsurrectionsontheborders;buttocausehimtoloseitasecondtimeitwasnecessarytobringthewholeworldagainsthim，andthathisarmiesshouldbedefeatedanddrivenoutofItaly;whichfollowedfromthecausesabovementioned。
[*]DukeLodovicowasLodovicoMoro，asonofFrancescoSforza，whomarriedBeatriced’Este。HeruledoverMilanfrom1494to1500，anddiedin1510。
NeverthelessMilanwastakenfromFranceboththefirstandthesecondtime。Thegeneralreasonsforthefirsthavebeendiscussed;itremainstonamethoseforthesecond，andtoseewhatresourceshehad，andwhatanyoneinhissituationwouldhavehadformaintaininghimselfmoresecurelyinhisacquisitionthandidtheKingofFrance。
NowIsaythatthosedominionswhich，whenacquired，areaddedtoanancientstatebyhimwhoacquiresthem，areeitherofthesamecountryandlanguage，ortheyarenot。Whentheyare，itiseasiertoholdthem，especiallywhentheyhavenotbeenaccustomedtoself—
government;andtoholdthemsecurelyitisenoughtohavedestroyedthefamilyoftheprincewhowasrulingthem;becausethetwopeoples，preservinginotherthingstheoldconditions，andnotbeingunlikeincustoms，willlivequietlytogether，asonehasseeninBrittany，Burgundy，Gascony，andNormandy，whichhavebeenboundtoFranceforsolongatime：and，althoughtheremaybesomedifferenceinlanguage，neverthelessthecustomsarealike，andthepeoplewilleasilybeabletogetonamongstthemselves。Hewhohasannexedthem，ifhewishestoholdthem，hasonlytobearinmindtwoconsiderations：theone，thatthefamilyoftheirformerlordisextinguished;theother，thatneithertheirlawsnortheirtaxesarealtered，sothatinaveryshorttimetheywillbecomeentirelyonebodywiththeoldprincipality。
Butwhenstatesareacquiredinacountrydifferinginlanguage，customs，orlaws，therearedifficulties，andgoodfortuneandgreatenergyareneededtoholdthem，andoneofthegreatestandmostrealhelpswouldbethathewhohasacquiredthemshouldgoandresidethere。Thiswouldmakehispositionmoresecureanddurable，asithasmadethatoftheTurkinGreece，who，notwithstandingalltheothermeasurestakenbyhimforholdingthatstate，ifhehadnotsettledthere，wouldnothavebeenabletokeepit。Because，ifoneisonthespot，disordersareseenastheyspringup，andonecanquicklyremedythem;butifoneisnotathand，theyareheardofonlywhentheyaregreat，andthenonecannolongerremedythem。Besidesthis，thecountryisnotpillagedbyyourofficials;thesubjectsaresatisfiedbypromptrecoursetotheprince;thus，wishingtobegood，theyhavemorecausetolovehim，andwishingtobeotherwise，tofearhim。Hewhowouldattackthatstatefromtheoutsidemusthavetheutmostcaution;aslongastheprinceresidesthereitcanonlybewrestedfromhimwiththegreatestdifficulty。
Theotherandbettercourseistosendcoloniestooneortwoplaces，whichmaybeaskeystothatstate，foritisnecessaryeithertodothisorelsetokeepthereagreatnumberofcavalryandinfantry。A
princedoesnotspendmuchoncolonies，forwithlittleornoexpensehecansendthemoutandkeepthemthere，andheoffendsaminorityonlyofthecitizensfromwhomhetakeslandsandhousestogivethemtothenewinhabitants;andthosewhomheoffends，remainingpoorandscattered，areneverabletoinjurehim;whilsttherestbeinguninjuredareeasilykeptquiet，andatthesametimeareanxiousnottoerrforfearitshouldhappentothemasithastothosewhohavebeendespoiled。Inconclusion，Isaythatthesecoloniesarenotcostly，theyaremorefaithful，theyinjureless，andtheinjured，ashasbeensaid，beingpoorandscattered，cannothurt。Uponthis，onehastoremarkthatmenoughteithertobewelltreatedorcrushed，becausetheycanavengethemselvesoflighterinjuries，ofmoreseriousonestheycannot;thereforetheinjurythatistobedonetoamanoughttobeofsuchakindthatonedoesnotstandinfearofrevenge。
Butinmaintainingarmedmenthereinplaceofcoloniesonespendsmuchmore，havingtoconsumeonthegarrisonalltheincomefromthestate，sothattheacquisitionturnsintoaloss，andmanymoreareexasperated，becausethewholestateisinjured;throughtheshiftingofthegarrisonupanddownallbecomeacquaintedwithhardship，andallbecomehostile，andtheyareenemieswho，whilstbeatenontheirownground，areyetabletodohurt。Foreveryreason，therefore，suchguardsareasuselessasacolonyisuseful。
Again，theprincewhoholdsacountrydifferingintheaboverespectsoughttomakehimselftheheadanddefenderofhislesspowerfulneighbours，andtoweakenthemorepowerfulamongstthem，takingcarethatnoforeigneraspowerfulashimselfshall，byanyaccident，getafootingthere;foritwillalwayshappenthatsuchaonewillbeintroducedbythosewhoarediscontented，eitherthroughexcessofambitionorthroughfear，asonehasseenalready。TheRomanswerebroughtintoGreecebytheAetolians;andineveryothercountrywheretheyobtainedafootingtheywerebroughtinbytheinhabitants。Andtheusualcourseofaffairsisthat，assoonasapowerfulforeignerentersacountry，allthesubjectstatesaredrawntohim，movedbythehatredwhichtheyfeelagainsttherulingpower。Sothatinrespecttothosesubjectstateshehasnottotakeanytroubletogainthemovertohimself，forthewholeofthemquicklyrallytothestatewhichhehasacquiredthere。Hehasonlytotakecarethattheydonotgetholdoftoomuchpowerandtoomuchauthority，andthenwithhisownforces，andwiththeirgoodwill，hecaneasilykeepdownthemorepowerfulofthem，soastoremainentirelymasterinthecountry。Andhewhodoesnotproperlymanagethisbusinesswillsoonlosewhathehasacquired，andwhilsthedoesholdithewillhaveendlessdifficultiesandtroubles。
TheRomans，inthecountrieswhichtheyannexed，observedcloselythesemeasures;theysentcoloniesandmaintainedfriendlyrelationswith[*]theminorpowers，withoutincreasingtheirstrength;theykeptdownthegreater，anddidnotallowanystrongforeignpowerstogainauthority。Greeceappearstomesufficientforanexample。TheAchaeansandAetolianswerekeptfriendlybythem，thekingdomofMacedoniawashumbled，Antiochuswasdrivenout;yetthemeritsoftheAchaeansandAetoliansneversecuredforthempermissiontoincreasetheirpower，nordidthepersuasionsofPhilipeverinducetheRomanstobehisfriendswithoutfirsthumblinghim，nordidtheinfluenceofAntiochusmakethemagreethatheshouldretainanylordshipoverthecountry。BecausetheRomansdidintheseinstanceswhatallprudentprincesoughttodo，whohavetoregardnotonlypresenttroubles，butalsofutureones，forwhichtheymustpreparewitheveryenergy，because，whenforeseen，itiseasytoremedythem;butifyouwaituntiltheyapproach，themedicineisnolongerintimebecausethemaladyhasbecomeincurable;forithappensinthis，asthephysicianssayithappensinhecticfever，thatinthebeginningofthemaladyitiseasytocurebutdifficulttodetect，butinthecourseoftime，nothavingbeeneitherdetectedortreatedinthebeginning，itbecomeseasytodetectbutdifficulttocure。Thisithappensinaffairsofstate，forwhentheevilsthatarisehavebeenforeseen（whichitisonlygiventoawisemantosee），theycanbequicklyredressed，butwhen，throughnothavingbeenforeseen，theyhavebeenpermittedtogrowinawaythateveryonecanseethem，thereisnolongeraremedy。Therefore，theRomans，foreseeingtroubles，dealtwiththematonce，and，eventoavoidawar，wouldnotletthemcometoahead，fortheyknewthatwarisnottobeavoided，butisonlytobeputofftotheadvantageofothers;moreovertheywishedtofightwithPhilipandAntiochusinGreecesoasnottohavetodoitinItaly;theycouldhaveavoidedboth，butthistheydidnotwish;nordidthateverpleasethemwhichisforeverinthemouthsofthewiseonesofourtime：——Letusenjoythebenefitsofthetime——butratherthebenefitsoftheirownvalourandprudence，fortimedriveseverythingbeforeit，andisabletobringwithitgoodaswellasevil，andevilaswellasgood。
[*]Seeremarkintheintroductionontheword"intrattenere。"
ButletusturntoFranceandinquirewhethershehasdoneanyofthethingsmentioned。IwillspeakofLouis[*]（andnotofCharles[]）astheonewhoseconductisthebettertobeobserved，hehavingheldpossessionofItalyforthelongestperiod;andyouwillseethathehasdonetheoppositetothosethingswhichoughttobedonetoretainastatecomposedofdiverselements。
[*]LouisXII，KingofFrance，"TheFatherofthePeople，"born1462，died1515。
[]CharlesVIII，KingofFrance，born1470，died1498。
KingLouiswasbroughtintoItalybytheambitionoftheVenetians，whodesiredtoobtainhalfthestateofLombardybyhisintervention。
Iwillnotblamethecoursetakenbytheking，because，wishingtogetafootholdinItaly，andhavingnofriendsthere——seeingratherthateverydoorwasshuttohimowingtotheconductofCharles——hewasforcedtoacceptthosefriendshipswhichhecouldget，andhewouldhavesucceededveryquicklyinhisdesignifinothermattershehadnotmadesomemistakes。Theking，however，havingacquiredLombardy，regainedatoncetheauthoritywhichCharleshadlost：Genoayielded;
theFlorentinesbecamehisfriends;theMarquessofMantua，theDukeofFerrara，theBentivogli，myladyofForli，theLordsofFaenza，ofPesaro，ofRimini，ofCamerino，ofPiombino，theLucchese，thePisans，theSienese——everybodymadeadvancestohimtobecomehisfriend。ThencouldtheVenetiansrealizetherashnessofthecoursetakenbythem，which，inorderthattheymightsecuretwotownsinLombardy，hadmadethekingmasteroftwo—thirdsofItaly。
LetanyonenowconsiderwiththatlittledifficultythekingcouldhavemaintainedhispositioninItalyhadheobservedtherulesabovelaiddown，andkeptallhisfriendssecureandprotected;foralthoughtheywerenumeroustheywerebothweakandtimid，someafraidoftheChurch，someoftheVenetians，andthustheywouldalwayshavebeenforcedtostandinwithhim，andbytheirmeanshecouldeasilyhavemadehimselfsecureagainstthosewhoremainedpowerful。ButhewasnosoonerinMilanthanhedidthecontrarybyassistingPopeAlexandertooccupytheRomagna。Itneveroccurredtohimthatbythisactionhewasweakeninghimself，deprivinghimselfoffriendsandofthosewhohadthrownthemselvesintohislap，whilstheaggrandizedtheChurchbyaddingmuchtemporalpowertothespiritual，thusgivingitgreaterauthority。Andhavingcommittedthisprimeerror，hewasobligedtofollowitup，somuchsothat，toputanendtotheambitionofAlexander，andtopreventhisbecomingthemasterofTuscany，hewashimselfforcedtocomeintoItaly。
AndasifitwerenotenoughtohaveaggrandizedtheChurch，anddeprivedhimselfoffriends，he，wishingtohavethekingdomofNaples，dividesitwiththeKingofSpain，andwherehewastheprimearbiterinItalyhetakesanassociate，sothattheambitiousofthatcountryandthemalcontentsofhisownshouldhavesomewheretoshelter;andwhereashecouldhaveleftinthekingdomhisownpensionerasking，hedrovehimout，toputonetherewhowasabletodrivehim，Louis，outinturn。
Thewishtoacquireisintruthverynaturalandcommon，andmenalwaysdosowhentheycan，andforthistheywillbepraisednotblamed;butwhentheycannotdoso，yetwishtodosobyanymeans，thenthereisfollyandblame。Therefore，ifFrancecouldhaveattackedNapleswithherownforcessheoughttohavedoneso;ifshecouldnot，thensheoughtnottohavedividedit。AndifthepartitionwhichshemadewiththeVenetiansinLombardywasjustifiedbytheexcusethatbyitshegotafootholdinItaly，thisotherpartitionmeritedblame，forithadnottheexcuseofthatnecessity。
ThereforeLouismadethesefiveerrors：hedestroyedtheminorpowers，heincreasedthestrengthofoneofthegreaterpowersinItaly，hebroughtinaforeignpower，hedidnotsettleinthecountry，hedidnotsendcolonies。Whicherrors，hadhelived，werenotenoughtoinjurehimhadhenotmadeasixthbytakingawaytheirdominionsfromtheVenetians;because，hadhenotaggrandizedtheChurch，norbroughtSpainintoItaly，itwouldhavebeenveryreasonableandnecessarytohumblethem;buthavingfirsttakenthesesteps，heoughtnevertohaveconsentedtotheirruin，forthey，beingpowerful，wouldalwayshavekeptoffothersfromdesignsonLombardy，towhichtheVenetianswouldneverhaveconsentedexcepttobecomemastersthemselvesthere;
alsobecausetheotherswouldnotwishtotakeLombardyfromFranceinordertogiveittotheVenetians，andtoruncountertoboththeywouldnothavehadthecourage。
Andifanyoneshouldsay："KingLouisyieldedtheRomagnatoAlexanderandthekingdomtoSpaintoavoidwar，Ianswerforthereasonsgivenabovethatablunderoughtnevertobeperpetratedtoavoidwar，becauseitisnottobeavoided，butisonlydeferredtoyourdisadvantage。AndifanothershouldallegethepledgewhichthekinghadgiventothePopethathewouldassisthimintheenterprise，inexchangeforthedissolutionofhismarriage[*]andforthecaptoRouen，[]tothatIreplywhatIshallwritelateronconcerningthefaithofprinces，andhowitoughttobekept。
[*]LouisXIIdivorcedhiswife，Jeanne，daughterofLouisXI，andmarriedin1499AnneofBrittany，widowofCharlesVIII，inordertoretaintheDuchyofBrittanyforthecrown。
[]TheArchbishopofRouen。HewasGeorgesd’Amboise，createdacardinalbyAlexanderVI。Born1460，died1510。
ThusKingLouislostLombardybynothavingfollowedanyoftheconditionsobservedbythosewhohavetakenpossessionofcountriesandwishedtoretainthem。Noristhereanymiracleinthis，butmuchthatisreasonableandquitenatural。AndonthesemattersIspokeatNanteswithRouen，whenValentino，asCesareBorgia，thesonofPopeAlexander，wasusuallycalled，occupiedtheRomagna，andonCardinalRouenobservingtomethattheItaliansdidnotunderstandwar，I
repliedtohimthattheFrenchdidnotunderstandstatecraft，meaningthatotherwisetheywouldnothaveallowedtheChurchtoreachsuchgreatness。AndinfactishasbeenseenthatthegreatnessoftheChurchandofSpaininItalyhasbeencausedbyFrance，andherruinmaybeattributedtothem。Fromthisageneralruleisdrawnwhichneverorrarelyfails：thathewhoisthecauseofanotherbecomingpowerfulisruined;becausethatpredominancyhasbeenbroughtabouteitherbyastutenessorelsebyforce，andbotharedistrustedbyhimwhohasbeenraisedtopower。
CHAPTERIV
WHYTHEKINGDOMOFDARIUS，CONQUEREDBYALEXANDER，DIDNOTREBEL
AGAINSTTHESUCCESSORSOFALEXANDERATHISDEATH
Consideringthedifficultieswhichmenhavehadtoholdtoanewlyacquiredstate，somemightwonderhow，seeingthatAlexandertheGreatbecamethemasterofAsiainafewyears，anddiedwhilstitwasscarcelysettled（whenceitmightappearreasonablethatthewholeempirewouldhaverebelled），neverthelesshissuccessorsmaintainedthemselves，andhadtomeetnootherdifficultythanthatwhicharoseamongthemselvesfromtheirownambitions。
Ianswerthattheprincipalitiesofwhichonehasrecordarefoundtobegovernedintwodifferentways;eitherbyaprince，withabodyofservants，whoassisthimtogovernthekingdomasministersbyhisfavourandpermission;orbyaprinceandbarons，whoholdthatdignitybyantiquityofbloodandnotbythegraceoftheprince。Suchbaronshavestatesandtheirownsubjects，whorecognizethemaslordsandholdtheminnaturalaffection。Thosestatesthataregovernedbyaprinceandhisservantsholdtheirprinceinmoreconsideration，becauseinallthecountrythereisnoonewhoisrecognizedassuperiortohim，andiftheyyieldobediencetoanothertheydoitastoaministerandofficial，andtheydonotbearhimanyparticularaffection。
TheexamplesofthesetwogovernmentsinourtimearetheTurkandtheKingofFrance。TheentiremonarchyoftheTurkisgovernedbyonelord，theothersarehisservants;and，dividinghiskingdomintosanjaks，hesendstheredifferentadministrators，andshiftsandchangesthemashechooses。ButtheKingofFranceisplacedinthemidstofanancientbodyoflords，acknowledgedbytheirownsubjects，andbelovedbythem;theyhavetheirownprerogatives，norcanthekingtaketheseawayexceptathisperil。Therefore，hewhoconsidersbothofthesestateswillrecognizegreatdifficultiesinseizingthestateoftheTurk，but，onceitisconquered，greateaseinholdingit。ThecausesofthedifficultiesinseizingthekingdomoftheTurkarethattheusurpercannotbecalledinbytheprincesofthekingdom，norcanhehopetobeassistedinhisdesignsbytherevoltofthosewhomthelordhasaroundhim。Thisarisesfromthereasonsgivenabove;forhisministers，beingallslavesandbondmen，canonlybecorruptedwithgreatdifficulty，andonecanexpectlittleadvantagefromthemwhentheyhavebeencorrupted，astheycannotcarrythepeoplewiththem，forthereasonsassigned。Hence，hewhoattackstheTurkmustbearinmindthathewillfindhimunited，andhewillhavetorelymoreonhisownstrengththanontherevoltofothers;but，ifoncetheTurkhasbeenconquered，androutedinthefieldinsuchawaythathecannotreplacehisarmies，thereisnothingtofearbutthefamilyofthisprince，and，thisbeingexterminated，thereremainsnoonetofear，theothershavingnocreditwiththepeople;andastheconquerordidnotrelyonthembeforehisvictory，soheoughtnottofearthemafterit。
ThecontraryhappensinkingdomsgovernedlikethatofFrance，becauseonecaneasilyentertherebygainingoversomebaronofthekingdom，foronealwaysfindsmalcontentsandsuchasdesireachange。Suchmen，forthereasonsgiven，canopenthewayintothestateandrenderthevictoryeasy;butifyouwishtoholditafterwards，youmeetwithinfinitedifficulties，bothfromthosewhohaveassistedyouandfromthoseyouhavecrushed。Norisitenoughforyoutohaveexterminatedthefamilyoftheprince，becausethelordsthatremainmakethemselvestheheadsoffreshmovementsagainstyou，andasyouareunableeithertosatisfyorexterminatethem，thatstateislostwhenevertimebringstheopportunity。
NowifyouwillconsiderwhatwasthenatureofthegovernmentofDarius，youwillfinditsimilartothekingdomoftheTurk，andthereforeitwasonlynecessaryforAlexander，firsttooverthrowhiminthefield，andthentotakethecountryfromhim。Afterwhichvictory，Dariusbeingkilled，thestateremainedsecuretoAlexander，fortheabovereasons。Andifhissuccessorshadbeenunitedtheywouldhaveenjoyeditsecurelyandattheirease，fortherewerenotumultsraisedinthekingdomexceptthosetheyprovokedthemselves。
ButitisimpossibletoholdwithsuchtranquillitystatesconstitutedlikethatofFrance。HencearosethosefrequentrebellionsagainsttheRomansinSpain，France，andGreece，owingtothemanyprincipalitiestherewereinthesestates，ofwhich，aslongasthememoryofthemendured，theRomansalwaysheldaninsecurepossession;butwiththepowerandlongcontinuanceoftheempirethememoryofthempassedaway，andtheRomansthenbecamesecurepossessors。Andwhenfightingafterwardsamongstthemselves，eachonewasabletoattachtohimselfhisownpartsofthecountry，accordingtotheauthorityhehadassumedthere;andthefamilyoftheformerlordbeingexterminated，noneotherthantheRomanswereacknowledged。
WhenthesethingsarerememberednoonewillmarvelattheeasewithwhichAlexanderheldtheEmpireofAsia，oratthedifficultieswhichothershavehadtokeepanacquisition，suchasPyrrhusandmanymore;
thisisnotoccasionedbythelittleorabundanceofabilityintheconqueror，butbythewantofuniformityinthesubjectstate。
CHAPTERV
CONCERNINGTHEWAYTOGOVERNCITIESORPRINCIPALITIESWHICH
LIVEDUNDERTHEIROWNLAWSBEFORETHEYWEREANNEXED
Wheneverthosestateswhichhavebeenacquiredasstatedhavebeenaccustomedtoliveundertheirownlawsandinfreedom，therearethreecoursesforthosewhowishtoholdthem：thefirstistoruinthem，thenextistoresidethereinperson，thethirdistopermitthemtoliveundertheirownlaws，drawingatribute，andestablishingwithinitanoligarchywhichwillkeepitfriendlytoyou。Becausesuchagovernment，beingcreatedbytheprince，knowsthatitcannotstandwithouthisfriendshipandinterest，anddoesitutmosttosupporthim;andthereforehewhowouldkeepacityaccustomedtofreedomwillholditmoreeasilybythemeansofitsowncitizensthaninanyotherway。
Thereare，forexample，theSpartansandtheRomans。TheSpartansheldAthensandThebes，establishingthereanoligarchy，neverthelesstheylostthem。TheRomans，inordertoholdCapua，Carthage，andNumantia，dismantledthem，anddidnotlosethem。TheywishedtoholdGreeceastheSpartansheldit，makingitfreeandpermittingitslaws，anddidnotsucceed。Sotoholdittheywerecompelledtodismantlemanycitiesinthecountry，forintruththereisnosafewaytoretainthemotherwisethanbyruiningthem。Andhewhobecomesmasterofacityaccustomedtofreedomanddoesnotdestroyit，mayexpecttobedestroyedbyit，forinrebellionithasalwaysthewatchwordoflibertyanditsancientprivilegesasarallyingpoint，whichneithertimenorbenefitswillevercauseittoforget。Andwhateveryoumaydoorprovideagainst，theyneverforgetthatnameortheirprivilegesunlesstheyaredisunitedordispersed，butateverychancetheyimmediatelyrallytothem，asPisaafterthehundredyearsshehadbeenheldinbondagebytheFlorentines。
Butwhencitiesorcountriesareaccustomedtoliveunderaprince，andhisfamilyisexterminated，they，beingontheonehandaccustomedtoobeyandontheotherhandnothavingtheoldprince，cannotagreeinmakingonefromamongstthemselves，andtheydonotknowhowtogovernthemselves。Forthisreasontheyareveryslowtotakeuparms，andaprincecangainthemtohimselfandsecurethemmuchmoreeasily。Butinrepublicsthereismorevitality，greaterhatred，andmoredesireforvengeance，whichwillneverpermitthemtoallowthememoryoftheirformerlibertytorest;sothatthesafestwayistodestroythemortoresidethere。