CHAPTERVI
CONCERNINGNEWPRINCIPALITIESWHICHAREACQUIRED
BYONE’SOWNARMSANDABILITY
Letnoonebesurprisedif，inspeakingofentirelynewprincipalitiesasIshalldo，Iadducethehighestexamplesbothofprinceandofstate;becausemen，walkingalmostalwaysinpathsbeatenbyothers，andfollowingbyimitationtheirdeeds，areyetunabletokeepentirelytothewaysofothersorattaintothepowerofthosetheyimitate。Awisemanoughtalwaystofollowthepathsbeatenbygreatmen，andtoimitatethosewhohavebeensupreme，sothatifhisabilitydoesnotequaltheirs，atleastitwillsavourofit。Lethimactlikethecleverarcherswho，designingtohitthemarkwhichyetappearstoofardistant，andknowingthelimitstowhichthestrengthoftheirbowattains，takeaimmuchhigherthanthemark，nottoreachbytheirstrengthorarrowtosogreataheight，buttobeablewiththeaidofsohighanaimtohitthemarktheywishtoreach。
Isay，therefore，thatinentirelynewprincipalities，wherethereisanewprince，moreorlessdifficultyisfoundinkeepingthem，accordinglyasthereismoreorlessabilityinhimwhohasacquiredthestate。Now，asthefactofbecomingaprincefromaprivatestationpresupposeseitherabilityorfortune，itisclearthatoneorotherofthesethingswillmitigateinsomedegreemanydifficulties。
Nevertheless，hewhohasreliedleastonfortuneisestablishedthestrongest。Further，itfacilitatesmatterswhentheprince，havingnootherstate，iscompelledtoresidethereinperson。
Buttocometothosewho，bytheirownabilityandnotthroughfortune，haverisentobeprinces，IsaythatMoses，Cyrus，Romulus，Theseus，andsuchlikearethemostexcellentexamples。AndalthoughonemaynotdiscussMoses，hehavingbeenamereexecutorofthewillofGod，yetheoughttobeadmired，ifonlyforthatfavourwhichmadehimworthytospeakwithGod。ButinconsideringCyrusandotherswhohaveacquiredorfoundedkingdoms，allwillbefoundadmirable;andiftheirparticulardeedsandconductshallbeconsidered，theywillnotbefoundinferiortothoseofMoses，althoughhehadsogreatapreceptor。Andinexaminingtheiractionsandlivesonecannotseethattheyowedanythingtofortunebeyondopportunity，whichbroughtthemthematerialtomouldintotheformwhichseemedbesttothem。
Withoutthatopportunitytheirpowersofmindwouldhavebeenextinguished，andwithoutthosepowerstheopportunitywouldhavecomeinvain。
Itwasnecessary，therefore，toMosesthatheshouldfindthepeopleofIsraelinEgyptenslavedandoppressedbytheEgyptians，inorderthattheyshouldbedisposedtofollowhimsoastobedeliveredoutofbondage。ItwasnecessarythatRomulusshouldnotremaininAlba，andthatheshouldbeabandonedathisbirth，inorderthatheshouldbecomeKingofRomeandfounderofthefatherland。ItwasnecessarythatCyrusshouldfindthePersiansdiscontentedwiththegovernmentoftheMedes，andtheMedessoftandeffeminatethroughtheirlongpeace。TheseuscouldnothaveshownhisabilityhadhenotfoundtheAtheniansdispersed。Theseopportunities，therefore，madethosemenfortunate，andtheirhighabilityenabledthemtorecognizetheopportunitywherebytheircountrywasennobledandmadefamous。
Thosewhobyvalorouswaysbecomeprinces，likethesemen，acquireaprincipalitywithdifficulty，buttheykeepitwithease。Thedifficultiestheyhaveinacquiringitriseinpartfromthenewrulesandmethodswhichtheyareforcedtointroducetoestablishtheirgovernmentanditssecurity。Anditoughttoberememberedthatthereisnothingmoredifficulttotakeinhand，moreperiloustoconduct，ormoreuncertaininitssuccess，thentotaketheleadintheintroductionofaneworderofthings。Becausetheinnovatorhasforenemiesallthosewhohavedonewellundertheoldconditions，andlukewarmdefendersinthosewhomaydowellunderthenew。Thiscoolnessarisespartlyfromfearoftheopponents，whohavethelawsontheirside，andpartlyfromtheincredulityofmen，whodonotreadilybelieveinnewthingsuntiltheyhavehadalongexperienceofthem。Thusithappensthatwheneverthosewhoarehostilehavetheopportunitytoattacktheydoitlikepartisans，whilsttheothersdefendlukewarmly，insuchwisethattheprinceisendangeredalongwiththem。
Itisnecessary，therefore，ifwedesiretodiscussthismatterthoroughly，toinquirewhethertheseinnovatorscanrelyonthemselvesorhavetodependonothers：thatistosay，whether，toconsummatetheirenterprise，havetheytouseprayersorcantheyuseforce？Inthefirstinstancetheyalwayssucceedbadly，andnevercompassanything;butwhentheycanrelyonthemselvesanduseforce，thentheyarerarelyendangered。Henceitisthatallarmedprophetshaveconquered，andtheunarmedoneshavebeendestroyed。Besidesthereasonsmentioned，thenatureofthepeopleisvariable，andwhilstitiseasytopersuadethem，itisdifficulttofixtheminthatpersuasion。Andthusitisnecessarytotakesuchmeasuresthat，whentheybelievenolonger，itmaybepossibletomakethembelievebyforce。
IfMoses，Cyrus，Theseus，andRomulushadbeenunarmedtheycouldnothaveenforcedtheirconstitutionsforlong——ashappenedinourtimetoFraGirolamoSavonarola，whowasruinedwithhisneworderofthingsimmediatelythemultitudebelievedinhimnolonger，andhehadnomeansofkeepingsteadfastthosewhobelievedorofmakingtheunbelieverstobelieve。Thereforesuchasthesehavegreatdifficultiesinconsummatingtheirenterprise，foralltheirdangersareintheascent，yetwithabilitytheywillovercomethem;butwhentheseareovercome，andthosewhoenviedthemtheirsuccessareexterminated，theywillbegintoberespected，andtheywillcontinueafterwardspowerful，secure，honoured，andhappy。
TothesegreatexamplesIwishtoaddalesserone;stillitbearssomeresemblancetothem，andIwishittosufficemeforallofalikekind：itisHierotheSyracusan。[*]ThismanrosefromaprivatestationtobePrinceofSyracuse，nordidhe，either，oweanythingtofortunebutopportunity;fortheSyracusans，beingoppressed，chosehimfortheircaptain，afterwardshewasrewardedbybeingmadetheirprince。Hewasofsogreatability，evenasaprivatecitizen，thatonewhowritesofhimsayshewantednothingbutakingdomtobeaking。Thismanabolishedtheoldsoldiery，organizedthenew，gaveupoldalliances，madenewones;andashehadhisownsoldiersandallies，onsuchfoundationshewasabletobuildanyedifice：thus，whilsthehadenduredmuchtroubleinacquiring，hehadbutlittleinkeeping。
[*]HieroII，bornabout307B。C。，died216B。C。
CHAPTERVII
CONCERNINGNEWPRINCIPALITIESWHICHAREACQUIREDEITHER
BYTHEARMSOFOTHERSORBYGOODFORTUNE
Thosewhosolelybygoodfortunebecomeprincesfrombeingprivatecitizenshavelittletroubleinrising，butmuchinkeepingatop;theyhavenotanydifficultiesonthewayup，becausetheyfly，buttheyhavemanywhentheyreachthesummit。Sucharethosetowhomsomestateisgiveneitherformoneyorbythefavourofhimwhobestowsit;ashappenedtomanyinGreece，inthecitiesofIoniaandoftheHellespont，whereprincesweremadebyDarius，inorderthattheymightholdthecitiesbothforhissecurityandhisglory;asalsowerethoseemperorswho，bythecorruptionofthesoldiers，frombeingcitizenscametoempire。Suchstandsimplyelevateduponthegoodwillandthefortuneofhimwhohaselevatedthem——twomostinconstantandunstablethings。Neitherhavetheytheknowledgerequisitefortheposition;because，unlesstheyaremenofgreatworthandability，itisnotreasonabletoexpectthattheyshouldknowhowtocommand，havingalwayslivedinaprivatecondition;besides，theycannotholditbecausetheyhavenotforceswhichtheycankeepfriendlyandfaithful。
Statesthatriseunexpectedly，then，likeallotherthingsinnaturewhicharebornandgrowrapidly，cannotleavetheirfoundationsandcorrespondencies[*]fixedinsuchawaythatthefirststormwillnotoverthrowthem;unless，asissaid，thosewhounexpectedlybecomeprincesaremenofsomuchabilitythattheyknowtheyhavetobepreparedatoncetoholdthatwhichfortunehasthrownintotheirlaps，andthatthosefoundations，whichothershavelaidBEFOREtheybecameprinces，theymustlayAFTERWARDS。
[*]"Leradiciecorrispondenze，"theirroots（i。e。foundations）andcorrespondenciesorrelationswithotherstates——acommonmeaningof"correspondence"and"correspondency"inthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies。
Concerningthesetwomethodsofrisingtobeaprincebyabilityorfortune，Iwishtoadducetwoexampleswithinourownrecollection，andtheseareFrancescoSforza[*]andCesareBorgia。Francesco，bypropermeansandwithgreatability，frombeingaprivatepersonrosetobeDukeofMilan，andthatwhichhehadacquiredwithathousandanxietieshekeptwithlittletrouble。Ontheotherhand，CesareBorgia，calledbythepeopleDukeValentino，acquiredhisstateduringtheascendancyofhisfather，andonitsdeclinehelostit，notwithstandingthathehadtakeneverymeasureanddoneallthatoughttobedonebyawiseandablemantofixfirmlyhisrootsinthestateswhichthearmsandfortunesofothershadbestowedonhim。
[*]FrancescoSforza，born1401，died1466。HemarriedBiancaMariaVisconti，anaturaldaughterofFilippoVisconti，theDukeofMilan，onwhosedeathheprocuredhisownelevationtotheduchy。
MachiavelliwastheaccreditedagentoftheFlorentineRepublictoCesareBorgia（1478—1507）duringthetransactionswhichleduptotheassassinationsoftheOrsiniandVitelliatSinigalia，andalongwithhisletterstohischiefsinFlorencehehasleftanaccount，writtentenyearsbefore"ThePrince，"oftheproceedingsofthedukeinhis"DescritionedelmodotenutodalducaValentinonelloammazzareVitellozzoVitelli，"etc。，atranslationofwhichisappendedtothepresentwork。
Because，asisstatedabove，hewhohasnotfirstlaidhisfoundationsmaybeablewithgreatabilitytolaythemafterwards，buttheywillbelaidwithtroubletothearchitectanddangertothebuilding。If，therefore，allthestepstakenbythedukebeconsidered，itwillbeseenthathelaidsolidfoundationsforhisfuturepower，andIdonotconsideritsuperfluoustodiscussthem，becauseIdonotknowwhatbetterpreceptstogiveanewprincethantheexampleofhisactions;
andifhisdispositionswereofnoavail，thatwasnothisfault，buttheextraordinaryandextrememalignityoffortune。
AlexandertheSixth，inwishingtoaggrandizetheduke，hisson，hadmanyimmediateandprospectivedifficulties。Firstly，hedidnotseehiswaytomakehimmasterofanystatethatwasnotastateoftheChurch;andifhewaswillingtorobtheChurchheknewthattheDukeofMilanandtheVenetianswouldnotconsent，becauseFaenzaandRiminiwerealreadyundertheprotectionoftheVenetians。Besidesthis，hesawthearmsofItaly，especiallythosebywhichhemighthavebeenassisted，inhandsthatwouldfeartheaggrandizementofthePope，namely，theOrsiniandtheColonnesiandtheirfollowing。Itbehovedhim，therefore，toupsetthisstateofaffairsandembroilthepowers，soastomakehimselfsecurelymasterofpartoftheirstates。
Thiswaseasyforhimtodo，becausehefoundtheVenetians，movedbyotherreasons，inclinedtobringbacktheFrenchintoItaly;hewouldnotonlynotopposethis，buthewouldrenderitmoreeasybydissolvingtheformermarriageofKingLouis。ThereforethekingcameintoItalywiththeassistanceoftheVenetiansandtheconsentofAlexander。HewasnosoonerinMilanthanthePopehadsoldiersfromhimfortheattemptontheRomagna，whichyieldedtohimonthereputationoftheking。Theduke，therefore，havingacquiredtheRomagnaandbeatentheColonnesi，whilewishingtoholdthatandtoadvancefurther，washinderedbytwothings：theone，hisforcesdidnotappearloyaltohim，theother，thegoodwillofFrance：thatistosay，hefearedthattheforcesoftheOrsini，whichhewasusing，wouldnotstandtohim，thatnotonlymighttheyhinderhimfromwinningmore，butmightthemselvesseizewhathehadwon，andthatthekingmightalsodothesame。OftheOrsinihehadawarningwhen，aftertakingFaenzaandattackingBologna，hesawthemgoveryunwillinglytothatattack。Andastotheking，helearnedhismindwhenhehimself，aftertakingtheDuchyofUrbino，attackedTuscany，andthekingmadehimdesistfromthatundertaking;hencethedukedecidedtodependnomoreuponthearmsandtheluckofothers。
ForthefirstthingheweakenedtheOrsiniandColonnesipartiesinRome，bygainingtohimselfalltheiradherentswhoweregentlemen，makingthemhisgentlemen，givingthemgoodpay，and，accordingtotheirrank，honouringthemwithofficeandcommandinsuchawaythatinafewmonthsallattachmenttothefactionswasdestroyedandturnedentirelytotheduke。AfterthisheawaitedanopportunitytocrushtheOrsini，havingscatteredtheadherentsoftheColonnahouse。
Thiscametohimsoonandheuseditwell;fortheOrsini，perceivingatlengththattheaggrandizementofthedukeandtheChurchwasruintothem，calledameetingoftheMagioneinPerugia。FromthissprungtherebellionatUrbinoandthetumultsintheRomagna，withendlessdangerstotheduke，allofwhichheovercamewiththehelpoftheFrench。Havingrestoredhisauthority，nottoleaveitatriskbytrustingeithertotheFrenchorotheroutsideforces，hehadrecoursetohiswiles，andheknewsowellhowtoconcealhismindthat，bythemediationofSignorPagolo——whomthedukedidnotfailtosecurewithallkindsofattention，givinghimmoney，apparel，andhorses——theOrsiniwerereconciled，sothattheirsimplicitybroughtthemintohispoweratSinigalia。[*]Havingexterminatedtheleaders，andturnedtheirpartisansintohisfriends，thedukelaidsufficientlygoodfoundationstohispower，havingalltheRomagnaandtheDuchyofUrbino;andthepeoplenowbeginningtoappreciatetheirprosperity，hegainedthemallovertohimself。Andasthispointisworthyofnotice，andtobeimitatedbyothers，Iamnotwillingtoleaveitout。
[*]Sinigalia，31stDecember1502。
WhenthedukeoccupiedtheRomagnahefounditundertheruleofweakmasters，whoratherplunderedtheirsubjectsthanruledthem，andgavethemmorecausefordisunionthanforunion，sothatthecountrywasfullofrobbery，quarrels，andeverykindofviolence;andso，wishingtobringbackpeaceandobediencetoauthority，heconsidereditnecessarytogiveitagoodgovernor。ThereuponhepromotedMesserRamirod’Orco，[*]aswiftandcruelman，towhomhegavethefullestpower。Thismaninashorttimerestoredpeaceandunitywiththegreatestsuccess。Afterwardsthedukeconsideredthatitwasnotadvisabletoconfersuchexcessiveauthority，forhehadnodoubtbutthathewouldbecomeodious，sohesetupacourtofjudgmentinthecountry，underamostexcellentpresident，whereinallcitieshadtheiradvocates。Andbecauseheknewthatthepastseverityhadcausedsomehatredagainsthimself，so，toclearhimselfinthemindsofthepeople，andgainthementirelytohimself，hedesiredtoshowthat，ifanycrueltyhadbeenpractised，ithadnotoriginatedwithhim，butinthenaturalsternnessoftheminister。UnderthispretencehetookRamiro，andonemorningcausedhimtobeexecutedandleftonthepiazzaatCesenawiththeblockandabloodyknifeathisside。Thebarbarityofthisspectaclecausedthepeopletobeatoncesatisfiedanddismayed。
[*]Ramirod’Orco。RamirodeLorqua。
Butletusreturnwhencewestarted。Isaythattheduke，findinghimselfnowsufficientlypowerfulandpartlysecuredfromimmediatedangersbyhavingarmedhimselfinhisownway，andhavinginagreatmeasurecrushedthoseforcesinhisvicinitythatcouldinjurehimifhewishedtoproceedwithhisconquest，hadnexttoconsiderFrance，forheknewthattheking，whotoolatewasawareofhismistake，wouldnotsupporthim。AndfromthistimehebegantoseeknewalliancesandtotemporizewithFranceintheexpeditionwhichshewasmakingtowardsthekingdomofNaplesagainsttheSpaniardswhowerebesiegingGaeta。Itwashisintentiontosecurehimselfagainstthem，andthishewouldhavequicklyaccomplishedhadAlexanderlived。
Suchwashislineofactionastopresentaffairs。Butastothefuturehehadtofear，inthefirstplace，thatanewsuccessortotheChurchmightnotbefriendlytohimandmightseektotakefromhimthatwhichAlexanderhadgivenhim，sohedecidedtoactinfourways。
Firstly，byexterminatingthefamiliesofthoselordswhomhehaddespoiled，soastotakeawaythatpretextfromthePope。Secondly，bywinningtohimselfallthegentlemenofRome，soastobeabletocurbthePopewiththeiraid，ashasbeenobserved。Thirdly，byconvertingthecollegemoretohimself。Fourthly，byacquiringsomuchpowerbeforethePopeshoulddiethathecouldbyhisownmeasuresresistthefirstshock。Ofthesefourthings，atthedeathofAlexander，hehadaccomplishedthree。Forhehadkilledasmanyofthedispossessedlordsashecouldlayhandson，andfewhadescaped;hehadwonovertheRomangentlemen，andhehadthemostnumerouspartyinthecollege。Andastoanyfreshacquisition，heintendedtobecomemasterofTuscany，forhealreadypossessedPerugiaandPiombino，andPisawasunderhisprotection。AndashehadnolongertostudyFrance（fortheFrenchwerealreadydrivenoutofthekingdomofNaplesbytheSpaniards，andinthiswaybothwerecompelledtobuyhisgoodwill），hepounceddownuponPisa。Afterthis，LuccaandSienayieldedatonce，partlythroughhatredandpartlythroughfearoftheFlorentines;andtheFlorentineswouldhavehadnoremedyhadhecontinuedtoprosper，ashewasprosperingtheyearthatAlexanderdied，forhehadacquiredsomuchpowerandreputationthathewouldhavestoodbyhimself，andnolongerhavedependedontheluckandtheforcesofothers，butsolelyonhisownpowerandability。
ButAlexanderdiedfiveyearsafterhehadfirstdrawnthesword。HeleftthedukewiththestateofRomagnaaloneconsolidated，withtherestintheair，betweentwomostpowerfulhostilearmies，andsickuntodeath。Yettherewereinthedukesuchboldnessandability，andheknewsowellhowmenaretobewonorlost，andsofirmwerethefoundationswhichinsoshortatimehehadlaid，thatifhehadnothadthosearmiesonhisback，orifhehadbeeningoodhealth，hewouldhaveovercomealldifficulties。Anditisseenthathisfoundationsweregood，fortheRomagnaawaitedhimformorethanamonth。InRome，althoughbuthalfalive，heremainedsecure;andwhilsttheBaglioni，theVitelli，andtheOrsinimightcometoRome，theycouldnoteffectanythingagainsthim。IfhecouldnothavemadePopehimwhomhewished，atleasttheonewhomhedidnotwishwouldnothavebeenelected。ButifhehadbeeninsoundhealthatthedeathofAlexander，[*]everythingwouldhavebeendifferenttohim。OnthedaythatJuliustheSecond[]waselected，hetoldmethathehadthoughtofeverythingthatmightoccuratthedeathofhisfather，andhadprovidedaremedyforall，exceptthathehadneveranticipatedthat，whenthedeathdidhappen，hehimselfwouldbeonthepointtodie。
[*]AlexanderVIdiedoffever，18thAugust1503。
[]JuliusIIwasGiulianodellaRovere，CardinalofSanPietroadVincula，born1443，died1513。
Whenalltheactionsofthedukearerecalled，Idonotknowhowtoblamehim，butratheritappearstobe，asIhavesaid，thatIoughttoofferhimforimitationtoallthosewho，bythefortuneorthearmsofothers，areraisedtogovernment。Becausehe，havingaloftyspiritandfar—reachingaims，couldnothaveregulatedhisconductotherwise，andonlytheshortnessofthelifeofAlexanderandhisownsicknessfrustratedhisdesigns。Therefore，hewhoconsidersitnecessarytosecurehimselfinhisnewprincipality，towinfriends，toovercomeeitherbyforceorfraud，tomakehimselfbelovedandfearedbythepeople，tobefollowedandreveredbythesoldiers，toexterminatethosewhohavepowerorreasontohurthim，tochangetheoldorderofthingsfornew，tobesevereandgracious，magnanimousandliberal，todestroyadisloyalsoldieryandtocreatenew，tomaintainfriendshipwithkingsandprincesinsuchawaythattheymusthelphimwithzealandoffendwithcaution，cannotfindamorelivelyexamplethantheactionsofthisman。
OnlycanhebeblamedfortheelectionofJuliustheSecond，inwhomhemadeabadchoice，because，asissaid，notbeingabletoelectaPopetohisownmind，hecouldhavehinderedanyotherfrombeingelectedPope;andheoughtnevertohaveconsentedtotheelectionofanycardinalwhomhehadinjuredorwhohadcausetofearhimiftheybecamepontiffs。Formeninjureeitherfromfearorhatred。Thosewhomhehadinjured，amongstothers，wereSanPietroadVincula，Colonna，SanGiorgio，andAscanio。[*]Therest，inbecomingPope，hadtofearhim，RouenandtheSpaniardsexcepted;thelatterfromtheirrelationshipandobligations，theformerfromhisinfluence，thekingdomofFrancehavingrelationswithhim。Therefore，aboveeverything，thedukeoughttohavecreatedaSpaniardPope，and，failinghim，heoughttohaveconsentedtoRouenandnotSanPietroadVincula。Hewhobelievesthatnewbenefitswillcausegreatpersonagestoforgetoldinjuriesisdeceived。Therefore，thedukeerredinhischoice，anditwasthecauseofhisultimateruin。
[*]SanGiorgioisRaffaelloRiario。AscanioisAscanioSforza。
CHAPTERVIII
CONCERNINGTHOSEWHOHAVEOBTAINEDAPRINCIPALITYBYWICKEDNESS
Althoughaprincemayrisefromaprivatestationintwoways，neitherofwhichcanbeentirelyattributedtofortuneorgenius，yetitismanifesttomethatImustnotbesilentonthem，althoughonecouldbemorecopiouslytreatedwhenIdiscussrepublics。Thesemethodsarewhen，eitherbysomewickedornefariousways，oneascendstotheprincipality，orwhenbythefavourofhisfellow—citizensaprivatepersonbecomestheprinceofhiscountry。Andspeakingofthefirstmethod，itwillbeillustratedbytwoexamples——oneancient，theothermodern——andwithoutenteringfurtherintothesubject，Iconsiderthesetwoexampleswillsufficethosewhomaybecompelledtofollowthem。
Agathocles，theSicilian，[*]becameKingofSyracusenotonlyfromaprivatebutfromalowandabjectposition。Thisman，thesonofapotter，throughallthechangesinhisfortunesalwaysledaninfamouslife。Nevertheless，heaccompaniedhisinfamieswithsomuchabilityofmindandbodythat，havingdevotedhimselftothemilitaryprofession，herosethroughitsrankstobePraetorofSyracuse。Beingestablishedinthatposition，andhavingdeliberatelyresolvedtomakehimselfprinceandtoseizebyviolence，withoutobligationtoothers，thatwhichhadbeenconcededtohimbyassent，hecametoanunderstandingforthispurposewithAmilcar，theCarthaginian，who，withhisarmy，wasfightinginSicily。OnemorningheassembledthepeopleandthesenateofSyracuse，asifhehadtodiscusswiththemthingsrelatingtotheRepublic，andatagivensignalthesoldierskilledallthesenatorsandtherichestofthepeople;thesedead，heseizedandheldtheprincedomofthatcitywithoutanycivilcommotion。AndalthoughhewastwiceroutedbytheCarthaginians，andultimatelybesieged，yetnotonlywasheabletodefendhiscity，butleavingpartofhismenforitsdefence，withtheothersheattackedAfrica，andinashorttimeraisedthesiegeofSyracuse。TheCarthaginians，reducedtoextremenecessity，werecompelledtocometotermswithAgathocles，and，leavingSicilytohim，hadtobecontentwiththepossessionofAfrica。
[*]AgathoclestheSicilian，born361B。C。，died289B。C。
Therefore，hewhoconsiderstheactionsandthegeniusofthismanwillseenothing，orlittle，whichcanbeattributedtofortune，inasmuchasheattainedpre—eminence，asisshownabove，notbythefavourofanyone，butstepbystepinthemilitaryprofession，whichstepsweregainedwithathousandtroublesandperils，andwereafterwardsboldlyheldbyhimwithmanyhazardousdangers。Yetitcannotbecalledtalenttoslayfellow—citizens，todeceivefriends，tobewithoutfaith，withoutmercy，withoutreligion;suchmethodsmaygainempire，butnotglory。Still，ifthecourageofAgathoclesinenteringintoandextricatinghimselffromdangersbeconsidered，togetherwithhisgreatnessofmindinenduringandovercominghardships，itcannotbeseenwhyheshouldbeesteemedlessthanthemostnotablecaptain。Nevertheless，hisbarbarouscrueltyandinhumanitywithinfinitewickednessdonotpermithimtobecelebratedamongthemostexcellentmen。Whatheachievedcannotbeattributedeithertofortuneorgenius。
Inourtimes，duringtheruleofAlexandertheSixth，OliverottodaFermo，havingbeenleftanorphanmanyyearsbefore，wasbroughtupbyhismaternaluncle，GiovanniFogliani，andintheearlydaysofhisyouthsenttofightunderPagoloVitelli，that，beingtrainedunderhisdiscipline，hemightattainsomehighpositioninthemilitaryprofession。AfterPagolodied，hefoughtunderhisbrotherVitellozzo，andinaveryshorttime，beingendowedwithwitandavigorousbodyandmind，hebecamethefirstmaninhisprofession。Butitappearingapaltrythingtoserveunderothers，heresolved，withtheaidofsomecitizensofFermo，towhomtheslaveryoftheircountrywasdearerthanitsliberty，andwiththehelpoftheVitelleschi，toseizeFermo。SohewrotetoGiovanniFoglianithat，havingbeenawayfromhomeformanyyears，hewishedtovisithimandhiscity，andinsomemeasuretolookuponhispatrimony;andalthoughhehadnotlabouredtoacquireanythingexcepthonour，yet，inorderthatthecitizensshouldseehehadnotspenthistimeinvain，hedesiredtocomehonourably，sowouldbeaccompaniedbyonehundredhorsemen，hisfriendsandretainers;andheentreatedGiovannitoarrangethatheshouldbereceivedhonourablybytheFermians，allofwhichwouldbenotonlytohishonour，butalsotothatofGiovannihimself，whohadbroughthimup。
Giovanni，therefore，didnotfailinanyattentionsduetohisnephew，andhecausedhimtobehonourablyreceivedbytheFermians，andhelodgedhiminhisownhouse，where，havingpassedsomedays，andhavingarrangedwhatwasnecessaryforhiswickeddesigns，OliverottogaveasolemnbanquettowhichheinvitedGiovanniFoglianiandthechiefsofFermo。Whentheviandsandalltheotherentertainmentsthatareusualinsuchbanquetswerefinished，Oliverottoartfullybegancertaingravediscourses，speakingofthegreatnessofPopeAlexanderandhissonCesare，andoftheirenterprises，towhichdiscourseGiovanniandothersanswered;butheroseatonce，sayingthatsuchmattersoughttobediscussedinamoreprivateplace，andhebetookhimselftoachamber，whitherGiovanniandtherestofthecitizenswentinafterhim。NosoonerweretheyseatedthansoldiersissuedfromsecretplacesandslaughteredGiovanniandtherest。AfterthesemurdersOliverotto，mountedonhorseback，rodeupanddownthetownandbesiegedthechiefmagistrateinthepalace，sothatinfearthepeoplewereforcedtoobeyhim，andtoformagovernment，ofwhichhemadehimselftheprince。Hekilledallthemalcontentswhowereabletoinjurehim，andstrengthenedhimselfwithnewcivilandmilitaryordinances，insuchawaythat，intheyearduringwhichheheldtheprincipality，notonlywashesecureinthecityofFermo，buthehadbecomeformidabletoallhisneighbours。AndhisdestructionwouldhavebeenasdifficultasthatofAgathoclesifhehadnotallowedhimselftobeoverreachedbyCesareBorgia，whotookhimwiththeOrsiniandVitelliatSinigalia，aswasstatedabove。Thusoneyearafterhehadcommittedthisparricide，hewasstrangled，togetherwithVitellozzo，whomhehadmadehisleaderinvalourandwickedness。
SomemaywonderhowitcanhappenthatAgathocles，andhislike，afterinfinitetreacheriesandcruelties，shouldliveforlongsecureinhiscountry，anddefendhimselffromexternalenemies，andneverbeconspiredagainstbyhisowncitizens;seeingthatmanyothers，bymeansofcruelty，haveneverbeenableeveninpeacefultimestoholdthestate，stilllessinthedoubtfultimesofwar。Ibelievethatthisfollowsfromseverities[*]beingbadlyorproperlyused。Thosemaybecalledproperlyused，ifofevilitispossibletospeakwell，thatareappliedatoneblowandarenecessarytoone’ssecurity，andthatarenotpersistedinafterwardsunlesstheycanbeturnedtotheadvantageofthesubjects。Thebadlyemployedarethosewhich，notwithstandingtheymaybefewinthecommencement，multiplywithtimeratherthandecrease。Thosewhopractisethefirstsystemareable，byaidofGodorman，tomitigateinsomedegreetheirrule，asAgathoclesdid。Itisimpossibleforthosewhofollowtheothertomaintainthemselves。
[*]MrBurdsuggeststhatthiswordprobablycomesnearthemodernequivalentofMachiavelli’sthoughtwhenhespeaksof"crudelta"
thanthemoreobvious"cruelties。"
Henceitistoberemarkedthat，inseizingastate，theusurperoughttoexaminecloselyintoallthoseinjurieswhichitisnecessaryforhimtoinflict，andtodothemallatonestrokesoasnottohavetorepeatthemdaily;andthusbynotunsettlingmenhewillbeabletoreassurethem，andwinthemtohimselfbybenefits。Hewhodoesotherwise，eitherfromtimidityoreviladvice，isalwayscompelledtokeeptheknifeinhishand;neithercanherelyonhissubjects，norcantheyattachthemselvestohim，owingtotheircontinuedandrepeatedwrongs。Forinjuriesoughttobedoneallatonetime，sothat，beingtastedless，theyoffendless;benefitsoughttobegivenlittlebylittle，sothattheflavourofthemmaylastlonger。
Andaboveallthings，aprinceoughttoliveamongsthispeopleinsuchawaythatnounexpectedcircumstances，whetherofgoodorevil，shallmakehimchange;becauseifthenecessityforthiscomesintroubledtimes，youaretoolateforharshmeasures;andmildoneswillnothelpyou，fortheywillbeconsideredasforcedfromyou，andnoonewillbeunderanyobligationtoyouforthem。
CHAPTERIX
CONCERNINGACIVILPRINCIPALITY
Butcomingtotheotherpoint——wherealeadingcitizenbecomestheprinceofhiscountry，notbywickednessoranyintolerableviolence，butbythefavourofhisfellowcitizens——thismaybecalledacivilprincipality：norisgeniusorfortunealtogethernecessarytoattaintoit，butratherahappyshrewdness。Isaythenthatsuchaprincipalityisobtainedeitherbythefavourofthepeopleorbythefavourofthenobles。Becauseinallcitiesthesetwodistinctpartiesarefound，andfromthisitarisesthatthepeopledonotwishtoberulednoroppressedbythenobles，andthenobleswishtoruleandoppressthepeople;andfromthesetwooppositedesirestherearisesincitiesoneofthreeresults，eitheraprincipality，self—
government，oranarchy。
Aprincipalityiscreatedeitherbythepeopleorbythenobles，accordinglyasoneorotherofthemhastheopportunity;forthenobles，seeingtheycannotwithstandthepeople，begintocryupthereputationofoneofthemselves，andtheymakehimaprince，sothatunderhisshadowtheycangiveventtotheirambitions。Thepeople，findingtheycannotresistthenobles，alsocryupthereputationofoneofthemselves，andmakehimaprincesoastobedefendedbyhisauthority。Hewhoobtainssovereigntybytheassistanceofthenoblesmaintainshimselfwithmoredifficultythanhewhocomestoitbytheaidofthepeople，becausetheformerfindshimselfwithmanyaroundhimwhoconsiderthemselveshisequals，andbecauseofthishecanneitherrulenormanagethemtohisliking。Buthewhoreachessovereigntybypopularfavourfindshimselfalone，andhasnonearoundhim，orfew，whoarenotpreparedtoobeyhim。
Besidesthis，onecannotbyfairdealing，andwithoutinjurytoothers，satisfythenobles，butyoucansatisfythepeople，fortheirobjectismorerighteousthanthatofthenobles，thelatterwishingtooppress，whiletheformeronlydesirenottobeoppressed。Itistobeaddedalsothataprincecanneversecurehimselfagainstahostilepeople，becauseoftheirbeingtoomany，whilstfromthenobleshecansecurehimself，astheyarefewinnumber。Theworstthataprincemayexpectfromahostilepeopleistobeabandonedbythem;butfromhostilenobleshehasnotonlytofearabandonment，butalsothattheywillriseagainsthim;forthey，beingintheseaffairsmorefar—
seeingandastute，alwayscomeforwardintimetosavethemselves，andtoobtainfavoursfromhimwhomtheyexpecttoprevail。Further，theprinceiscompelledtolivealwayswiththesamepeople，buthecandowellwithoutthesamenobles，beingabletomakeandunmakethemdaily，andtogiveorwakeawayauthoritywhenitpleaseshim。
Therefore，tomakethispointclearer，Isaythatthenoblesoughttobelookedatmainlyintwoways：thatistosay，theyeithershapetheircourseinsuchawayasbindsthementirelytoyourfortune，ortheydonot。Thosewhosobindthemselves，andarenotrapacious，oughttobehonouredandloved;thosewhodonotbindthemselvesmaybedealtwithintwoways;theymayfailtodothisthroughpusillanimityandanaturalwantofcourage，inwhichcaseyououghttomakeuseofthem，especiallyofthosewhoareofgoodcounsel;andthus，whilstinprosperityyouhonourthem，inadversityyoudonothavetofearthem。Butwhenfortheirownambitiousendstheyshunbindingthemselves，itisatokenthattheyaregivingmorethoughttothemselvesthantoyou，andaprinceouttoguardagainstsuch，andtofearthemasiftheywereopenenemies，becauseinadversitytheyalwayshelptoruinhim。
Therefore，onewhobecomesaprincethroughthefavourofthepeopleoughttokeepthemfriendly，andthishecaneasilydoseeingtheyonlyasknottobeoppressedbyhim。Butonewho，inoppositiontothepeople，becomesaprincebythefavourofthenobles，ought，aboveeverything，toseektowinthepeopleovertohimself，andthishemayeasilydoifhetakesthemunderhisprotection。Becausemen，whentheyreceivegoodfromhimofwhomtheywereexpectingevil，areboundmorecloselytotheirbenefactor;thusthepeoplequicklybecomemoredevotedtohimthanifhehadbeenraisedtotheprincipalitybytheirfavours;andtheprincecanwintheiraffectionsinmanyways，butasthesevaryaccordingtothecircumstancesonecannotgivefixedrules，soIomitthem;but，Irepeat，itisnecessaryforaprincetohavethepeoplefriendly，otherwisehehasnosecurityinadversity。
Nabis，[*]PrinceoftheSpartans，sustainedtheattackofallGreece，andofavictoriousRomanarmy，andagainstthemhedefendedhiscountryandhisgovernment;andfortheovercomingofthisperilitwasonlynecessaryforhimtomakehimselfsecureagainstafew，butthiswouldnothavebeensufficienthadthepeoplebeenhostile。Anddonotletanyoneimpugnthisstatementwiththetriteproverbthat"Hewhobuildsonthepeople，buildsonthemud，"forthisistruewhenaprivatecitizenmakesafoundationthere，andpersuadeshimselfthatthepeoplewillfreehimwhenheisoppressedbyhisenemiesorbythemagistrates;whereinhewouldfindhimselfveryoftendeceived，ashappenedtotheGracchiinRomeandtoMesserGiorgioScali[]inFlorence。Butgrantedaprincewhohasestablishedhimselfasabove，whocancommand，andisamanofcourage，undismayedinadversity，whodoesnotfailinotherqualifications，andwho，byhisresolutionandenergy，keepsthewholepeopleencouraged——suchaonewillneverfindhimselfdeceivedinthem，anditwillbeshownthathehaslaidhisfoundationswell。
[*]Nabis，tyrantofSparta，conqueredbytheRomansunderFlamininusin195B。C。;killed192B。C。
[]MesserGiorgioScali。ThiseventistobefoundinMachiavelli’s"FlorentineHistory，"BookIII。
Theseprincipalitiesareliabletodangerwhentheyarepassingfromtheciviltotheabsoluteorderofgovernment，forsuchprinceseitherrulepersonallyorthroughmagistrates。Inthelattercasetheirgovernmentisweakerandmoreinsecure，becauseitrestsentirelyonthegoodwillofthosecitizenswhoareraisedtothemagistracy，andwho，especiallyintroubledtimes，candestroythegovernmentwithgreatease，eitherbyintrigueoropendefiance;andtheprincehasnotthechanceamidtumultstoexerciseabsoluteauthority，becausethecitizensandsubjects，accustomedtoreceiveordersfrommagistrates，arenotofamindtoobeyhimamidtheseconfusions，andtherewillalwaysbeindoubtfultimesascarcityofmenwhomhecantrust。Forsuchaprincecannotrelyuponwhatheobservesinquiettimes，whencitizenshaveneedofthestate，becausetheneveryoneagreeswithhim;theyallpromise，andwhendeathisfardistanttheyallwishtodieforhim;butintroubledtimes，whenthestatehasneedofitscitizens，thenhefindsbutfew。Andsomuchthemoreisthisexperimentdangerous，inasmuchasitcanonlybetriedonce。
Thereforeawiseprinceoughttoadoptsuchacoursethathiscitizenswillalwaysineverysortandkindofcircumstancehaveneedofthestateandofhim，andthenhewillalwaysfindthemfaithful。
CHAPTERX
CONCERNINGTHEWAYINWHICHTHESTRENGTHOFALLPRINCIPALITIES
OUGHTTOBEMEASURED
Itisnecessarytoconsideranotherpointinexaminingthecharacteroftheseprincipalities：thatis，whetheraprincehassuchpowerthat，incaseofneed，hecansupporthimselfwithhisownresources，orwhetherhehasalwaysneedoftheassistanceofothers。AndtomakethisquiteclearIsaythatIconsiderthosewhoareabletosupportthemselvesbytheirownresourceswhocan，eitherbyabundanceofmenormoney，raiseasufficientarmytojoinbattleagainstanyonewhocomestoattackthem;andIconsiderthosealwaystohaveneedofotherswhocannotshowthemselvesagainsttheenemyinthefield，butareforcedtodefendthemselvesbyshelteringbehindwalls。Thefirstcasehasbeendiscussed，butwewillspeakofitagainshoulditrecur。Inthesecondcaseonecansaynothingexcepttoencouragesuchprincestoprovisionandfortifytheirtowns，andnotonanyaccounttodefendthecountry。Andwhoevershallfortifyhistownwell，andshallhavemanagedtheotherconcernsofhissubjectsinthewaystatedabove，andtobeoftenrepeated，willneverbeattackedwithoutgreatcaution，formenarealwaysadversetoenterpriseswheredifficultiescanbeseen，anditwillbeseennottobeaneasythingtoattackonewhohashistownwellfortified，andisnothatedbyhispeople。
ThecitiesofGermanyareabsolutelyfree，theyownbutlittlecountryaroundthem，andtheyyieldobediencetotheemperorwhenitsuitsthem，nordotheyfearthisoranyotherpowertheymayhavenearthem，becausetheyarefortifiedinsuchawaythateveryonethinksthetakingofthembyassaultwouldbetediousanddifficult，seeingtheyhaveproperditchesandwalls，theyhavesufficientartillery，andtheyalwayskeepinpublicdepotsenoughforoneyear’seating，drinking，andfiring。Andbeyondthis，tokeepthepeoplequietandwithoutlosstothestate，theyalwayshavethemeansofgivingworktothecommunityinthoselaboursthatarethelifeandstrengthofthecity，andonthepursuitofwhichthepeoplearesupported;theyalsoholdmilitaryexercisesinrepute，andmoreoverhavemanyordinancestoupholdthem。
Therefore，aprincewhohasastrongcity，andhadnotmadehimselfodious，willnotbeattacked，orifanyoneshouldattackhewillonlybedrivenoffwithdisgrace;again，becausethattheaffairsofthisworldaresochangeable，itisalmostimpossibletokeepanarmyawholeyearinthefieldwithoutbeinginterferedwith。Andwhoevershouldreply：Ifthepeoplehavepropertyoutsidethecity，andseeitburnt，theywillnotremainpatient，andthelongsiegeandself—
interestwillmakethemforgettheirprince;tothisIanswerthatapowerfulandcourageousprincewillovercomeallsuchdifficultiesbygivingatonetimehopetohissubjectsthattheevilwillnotbeforlong，atanothertimefearofthecrueltyoftheenemy，thenpreservinghimselfadroitlyfromthosesubjectswhoseemtohimtobetoobold。
Further，theenemywouldnaturallyonhisarrivalatonceburnandruinthecountryatthetimewhenthespiritsofthepeoplearestillhotandreadyforthedefence;and，therefore，somuchthelessoughttheprincetohesitate;becauseafteratime，whenspiritshavecooled，thedamageisalreadydone，theillsareincurred，andthereisnolongeranyremedy;andthereforetheyaresomuchthemorereadytounitewiththeirprince，heappearingtobeunderobligationstothemnowthattheirhouseshavebeenburntandtheirpossessionsruinedinhisdefence。Foritisthenatureofmentobeboundbythebenefitstheyconferasmuchasbythosetheyreceive。Therefore，ifeverythingiswellconsidered，itwillnotbedifficultforawiseprincetokeepthemindsofhiscitizenssteadfastfromfirsttolast，whenhedoesnotfailtosupportanddefendthem。
CHAPTERXI
CONCERNINGECCLESIASTICALPRINCIPALITIES
Itonlyremainsnowtospeakofecclesiasticalprincipalities，touchingwhichalldifficultiesarepriortogettingpossession，becausetheyareacquiredeitherbycapacityorgoodfortune，andtheycanbeheldwithouteither;fortheyaresustainedbytheancientordinancesofreligion，whicharesoall—powerful，andofsuchacharacterthattheprincipalitiesmaybeheldnomatterhowtheirprincesbehaveandlive。Theseprincesalonehavestatesanddonotdefendthem;andtheyhavesubjectsanddonotrulethem;andthestates，althoughunguarded，arenottakenfromthem，andthesubjects，althoughnotruled，donotcare，andtheyhaveneitherthedesirenortheabilitytoalienatethemselves。Suchprincipalitiesonlyaresecureandhappy。Butbeingupheldbypowers，towhichthehumanmindcannotreach，Ishallspeaknomoreofthem，because，beingexaltedandmaintainedbyGod，itwouldbetheactofapresumptuousandrashmantodiscussthem。
Nevertheless，ifanyoneshouldaskofmehowcomesitthattheChurchhasattainedsuchgreatnessintemporalpower，seeingthatfromAlexanderbackwardstheItalianpotentates（notonlythosewhohavebeencalledpotentates，buteverybaronandlord，thoughthesmallest）
havevaluedthetemporalpowerveryslightly——yetnowakingofFrancetremblesbeforeit，andithasbeenabletodrivehimfromItaly，andtoruintheVenetians——althoughthismaybeverymanifest，itdoesnotappeartomesuperfluoustorecallitinsomemeasuretomemory。
BeforeCharles，KingofFrance，passedintoItaly，[*]thiscountrywasunderthedominionofthePope，theVenetians，theKingofNaples，theDukeofMilan，andtheFlorentines。Thesepotentateshadtwoprincipalanxieties：theone，thatnoforeignershouldenterItalyunderarms;
theother，thatnoneofthemselvesshouldseizemoreterritory。ThoseaboutwhomtherewasthemostanxietywerethePopeandtheVenetians。
TorestraintheVenetianstheunionofalltheotherswasnecessary，asitwasforthedefenceofFerrara;andtokeepdownthePopetheymadeuseofthebaronsofRome，who，beingdividedintotwofactions，OrsiniandColonnesi，hadalwaysapretextfordisorder，and，standingwitharmsintheirhandsundertheeyesofthePontiff，keptthepontificateweakandpowerless。Andalthoughtheremightarisesometimesacourageouspope，suchasSixtus，yetneitherfortunenorwisdomcouldridhimoftheseannoyances。Andtheshortlifeofapopeisalsoacauseofweakness;forinthetenyears，whichistheaveragelifeofapope，hecanwithdifficultyloweroneofthefactions;andif，sotospeak，onepeopleshouldalmostdestroytheColonnesi，anotherwouldarisehostiletotheOrsini，whowouldsupporttheiropponents，andyetwouldnothavetimetoruintheOrsini。ThiswasthereasonwhythetemporalpowersofthepopewerelittleesteemedinItaly。
[*]CharlesVIIIinvadedItalyin1494。
AlexandertheSixtharoseafterwards，whoofallthepontiffsthathaveeverbeenshowedhowapopewithbothmoneyandarmswasabletoprevail;andthroughtheinstrumentalityoftheDukeValentino，andbyreasonoftheentryoftheFrench，hebroughtaboutallthosethingswhichIhavediscussedaboveintheactionsoftheduke。AndalthoughhisintentionwasnottoaggrandizetheChurch，buttheduke，nevertheless，whathedidcontributedtothegreatnessoftheChurch，which，afterhisdeathandtheruinoftheduke，becametheheirtoallhislabours。
PopeJuliuscameafterwardsandfoundtheChurchstrong，possessingalltheRomagna，thebaronsofRomereducedtoimpotence，and，throughthechastisementsofAlexander，thefactionswipedout;healsofoundthewayopentoaccumulatemoneyinamannersuchashadneverbeenpractisedbeforeAlexander’stime。SuchthingsJuliusnotonlyfollowed，butimprovedupon，andheintendedtogainBologna，toruintheVenetians，andtodrivetheFrenchoutofItaly。Alloftheseenterprisesprosperedwithhim，andsomuchthemoretohiscredit，inasmuchashedideverythingtostrengthentheChurchandnotanyprivateperson。HekeptalsotheOrsiniandColonnesifactionswithintheboundsinwhichhefoundthem;andalthoughtherewasamongthemsomemindtomakedisturbance，neverthelessheheldtwothingsfirm：
theone，thegreatnessoftheChurch，withwhichheterrifiedthem;
andtheother，notallowingthemtohavetheirowncardinals，whocausedthedisordersamongthem。Forwheneverthesefactionshavetheircardinalstheydonotremainquietforlong，becausecardinalsfosterthefactionsinRomeandoutofit，andthebaronsarecompelledtosupportthem，andthusfromtheambitionsofprelatesarisedisordersandtumultsamongthebarons。ForthesereasonshisHolinessPopeLeo[*]foundthepontificatemostpowerful，anditistobehopedthat，ifothersmadeitgreatinarms，hewillmakeitstillgreaterandmoreveneratedbyhisgoodnessandinfiniteothervirtues。
[*]PopeLeoXwastheCardinalde’Medici。
CHAPTERXII
HOWMANYKINDSOFSOLDIERYTHEREARE，ANDCONCERNINGMERCENARIES
HavingdiscoursedparticularlyonthecharacteristicsofsuchprincipalitiesasinthebeginningIproposedtodiscuss，andhavingconsideredinsomedegreethecausesoftheirbeinggoodorbad，andhavingshownthemethodsbywhichmanyhavesoughttoacquirethemandtoholdthem，itnowremainsformetodiscussgenerallythemeansofoffenceanddefencewhichbelongtoeachofthem。
Wehaveseenabovehownecessaryitisforaprincetohavehisfoundationswelllaid，otherwiseitfollowsofnecessityhewillgotoruin。Thechieffoundationsofallstates，newaswellasoldorcomposite，aregoodlawsandgoodarms;andastherecannotbegoodlawswherethestateisnotwellarmed，itfollowsthatwheretheyarewellarmedtheyhavegoodlaws。Ishallleavethelawsoutofthediscussionandshallspeakofthearms。
Isay，therefore，thatthearmswithwhichaprincedefendshisstateareeitherhisown，ortheyaremercenaries，auxiliaries，ormixed。
Mercenariesandauxiliariesareuselessanddangerous;andifoneholdshisstatebasedonthesearms，hewillstandneitherfirmnorsafe;fortheyaredisunited，ambitious，andwithoutdiscipline，unfaithful，valiantbeforefriends，cowardlybeforeenemies;theyhaveneitherthefearofGodnorfidelitytomen，anddestructionisdeferredonlysolongastheattackis;forinpeaceoneisrobbedbythem，andinwarbytheenemy。Thefactis，theyhavenootherattractionorreasonforkeepingthefieldthanatrifleofstipend，whichisnotsufficienttomakethemwillingtodieforyou。Theyarereadyenoughtobeyoursoldierswhilstyoudonotmakewar，butifwarcomestheytakethemselvesofforrunfromthefoe;whichIshouldhavelittletroubletoprove，fortheruinofItalyhasbeencausedbynothingelsethanbyrestingallherhopesformanyyearsonmercenaries，andalthoughtheyformerlymadesomedisplayandappearedvaliantamongstthemselves，yetwhentheforeignerscametheyshowedwhattheywere。ThusitwasthatCharles，KingofFrance，wasallowedtoseizeItalywithchalkinhand;[*]andhewhotoldusthatoursinswerethecauseofittoldthetruth，buttheywerenotthesinsheimagined，butthosewhichIhaverelated。Andastheywerethesinsofprinces，itistheprinceswhohavealsosufferedthepenalty。
[*]"Withchalkinhand，""colgesso。"ThisisoneofthebonsmotsofAlexanderVI，andreferstotheeasewithwhichCharlesVIII
seizedItaly，implyingthatitwasonlynecessaryforhimtosendhisquartermasterstochalkupthebilletsforhissoldierstoconquerthecountry。Cf。"TheHistoryofHenryVII，"byLordBacon："KingCharleshadconqueredtherealmofNaples，andlostitagain，inakindofafelicityofadream。HepassedthewholelengthofItalywithoutresistance：sothatitwastruewhatPopeAlexanderwaswonttosay：ThattheFrenchmencameintoItalywithchalkintheirhands，tomarkuptheirlodgings，ratherthanwithswordstofight。"
Iwishtodemonstratefurthertheinfelicityofthesearms。Themercenarycaptainsareeithercapablemenortheyarenot;iftheyare，youcannottrustthem，becausetheyalwaysaspiretotheirowngreatness，eitherbyoppressingyou，whoaretheirmaster，orotherscontrarytoyourintentions;butifthecaptainisnotskilful，youareruinedintheusualway。
Andifitbeurgedthatwhoeverisarmedwillactinthesameway，whethermercenaryornot，Ireplythatwhenarmshavetoberesortedto，eitherbyaprinceorarepublic，thentheprinceoughttogoinpersonandperformthedutyofacaptain;therepublichastosenditscitizens，andwhenoneissentwhodoesnotturnoutsatisfactorily，itoughttorecallhim，andwhenoneisworthy，toholdhimbythelawssothathedoesnotleavethecommand。Andexperiencehasshownprincesandrepublics，single—handed，makingthegreatestprogress，andmercenariesdoingnothingexceptdamage;anditismoredifficulttobringarepublic，armedwithitsownarms，undertheswayofoneofitscitizensthanitistobringonearmedwithforeignarms。RomeandSpartastoodformanyagesarmedandfree。TheSwitzersarecompletelyarmedandquitefree。
Ofancientmercenaries，forexample，therearetheCarthaginians，whowereoppressedbytheirmercenarysoldiersafterthefirstwarwiththeRomans，althoughtheCarthaginianshadtheirowncitizensforcaptains。AfterthedeathofEpaminondas，PhilipofMacedonwasmadecaptainoftheirsoldiersbytheThebans，andaftervictoryhetookawaytheirliberty。
DukeFilippobeingdead，theMilaneseenlistedFrancescoSforzaagainsttheVenetians，andhe，havingovercometheenemyatCaravaggio，[*]alliedhimselfwiththemtocrushtheMilanese，hismasters。Hisfather，Sforza，havingbeenengagedbyQueenJohanna[]
ofNaples，leftherunprotected，sothatshewasforcedtothrowherselfintothearmsoftheKingofAragon，inordertosaveherkingdom。AndiftheVenetiansandFlorentinesformerlyextendedtheirdominionsbythesearms，andyettheircaptainsdidnotmakethemselvesprinces，buthavedefendedthem，IreplythattheFlorentinesinthiscasehavebeenfavouredbychance，foroftheablecaptains，ofwhomtheymighthavestoodinfear，somehavenotconquered，somehavebeenopposed，andothershaveturnedtheirambitionselsewhere。OnewhodidnotconquerwasGiovanniAcuto，[%]
andsincehedidnotconquerhisfidelitycannotbeproved;buteveryonewillacknowledgethat，hadheconquered，theFlorentineswouldhavestoodathisdiscretion。SforzahadtheBracceschialwaysagainsthim，sotheywatchedeachother。FrancescoturnedhisambitiontoLombardy;BraccioagainsttheChurchandthekingdomofNaples。Butletuscometothatwhichhappenedashortwhileago。TheFlorentinesappointedastheircaptainPagoloVitelli，amostprudentman，whofromaprivatepositionhadrisentothegreatestrenown。IfthismanhadtakenPisa，nobodycandenythatitwouldhavebeenproperfortheFlorentinestokeepinwithhim，forifhebecamethesoldieroftheirenemiestheyhadnomeansofresisting，andiftheyheldtohimtheymustobeyhim。TheVenetians，iftheirachievementsareconsidered，willbeseentohaveactedsafelyandgloriouslysolongastheysenttowartheirownmen，whenwitharmedgentlemenandplebianstheydidvaliantly。Thiswasbeforetheyturnedtoenterprisesonland，butwhentheybegantofightonlandtheyforsookthisvirtueandfollowedthecustomofItaly。Andinthebeginningoftheirexpansiononland，throughnothavingmuchterritory，andbecauseoftheirgreatreputation，theyhadnotmuchtofearfromtheircaptains;butwhentheyexpanded，asunderCarmignuola，[#]theyhadatasteofthismistake;for，havingfoundhimamostvaliantman（theybeattheDukeofMilanunderhisleadership），and，ontheotherhand，knowinghowlukewarmhewasinthewar，theyfearedtheywouldnolongerconquerunderhim，andforthisreasontheywerenotwilling，norweretheyable，tolethimgo;andso，nottoloseagainthatwhichtheyhadacquired，theywerecompelled，inordertosecurethemselves，tomurderhim。TheyhadafterwardsfortheircaptainsBartolomeodaBergamo，RobertodaSanSeverino，thecountofPitigliano，[&]andthelike，underwhomtheyhadtodreadlossandnotgain，ashappenedafterwardsatVaila，[$]whereinonebattletheylostthatwhichineighthundredyearstheyhadacquiredwithsomuchtrouble。Becausefromsucharmsconquestscomebutslowly，longdelayedandinconsiderable，butthelossessuddenandportentous。
[*]BattleofCaravaggio，15thSeptember1448。
[]JohannaIIofNaples，thewidowofLadislao，KingofNaples。
[%]GiovanniAcuto。AnEnglishknightwhosenamewasSirJohnHawkwood。HefoughtintheEnglishwarsinFrance，andwasknightedbyEdwardIII;afterwardshecollectedabodyoftroopsandwentintoItaly。Thesebecamethefamous"WhiteCompany。"Hetookpartinmanywars，anddiedinFlorencein1394。Hewasbornabout1320atSibleHedingham，avillageinEssex。HemarriedDomnia，adaughterofBernaboVisconti。
[#]Carmignuola。FrancescoBussone，bornatCarmagnolaabout1390，executedatVenice，5thMay1432。
[&]BartolomeoColleoniofBergamo;died1457。RobertoofSanSeverino;diedfightingforVeniceagainstSigismund，DukeofAustria，in1487。"PrimocapitanoinItalia。"——Machiavelli。CountofPitigliano;NicoloOrsini，born1442，died1510。
[$]BattleofVailain1509。
AndaswiththeseexamplesIhavereachedItaly，whichhasbeenruledformanyyearsbymercenaries，Iwishtodiscussthemmoreseriously，inorderthat，havingseentheirriseandprogress，onemaybebetterpreparedtocounteractthem。YoumustunderstandthattheempirehasrecentlycometoberepudiatedinItaly，thatthePopehasacquiredmoretemporalpower，andthatItalyhasbeendividedupintomorestates，forthereasonthatmanyofthegreatcitiestookuparmsagainsttheirnobles，who，formerlyfavouredbytheemperor，wereoppressingthem，whilsttheChurchwasfavouringthemsoastogainauthorityintemporalpower：inmanyotherstheircitizensbecameprinces。FromthisitcametopassthatItalyfellpartlyintothehandsoftheChurchandofrepublics，and，theChurchconsistingofpriestsandtherepublicofcitizensunaccustomedtoarms，bothcommencedtoenlistforeigners。
ThefirstwhogaverenowntothissoldierywasAlberigodaConio，[*]
theRomagnian。Fromtheschoolofthismansprang，amongothers，BraccioandSforza，whointheirtimewerethearbitersofItaly。
AfterthesecamealltheothercaptainswhotillnowhavedirectedthearmsofItaly;andtheendofalltheirvalourhasbeen，thatshehasbeenoverrunbyCharles，robbedbyLouis，ravagedbyFerdinand，andinsultedbytheSwitzers。Theprinciplethathasguidedthemhasbeen，first，tolowerthecreditofinfantrysothattheymightincreasetheirown。Theydidthisbecause，subsistingontheirpayandwithoutterritory，theywereunabletosupportmanysoldiers，andafewinfantrydidnotgivethemanyauthority;sotheywereledtoemploycavalry，withamoderateforceofwhichtheyweremaintainedandhonoured;andaffairswerebroughttosuchapassthat，inanarmyoftwentythousandsoldiers，therewerenottobefoundtwothousandfootsoldiers。Theyhad，besidesthis，usedeveryarttolessenfatigueanddangertothemselvesandtheirsoldiers，notkillinginthefray，buttakingprisonersandliberatingwithoutransom。Theydidnotattacktownsatnight，nordidthegarrisonsofthetownsattackencampmentsatnight;theydidnotsurroundthecampeitherwithstockadeorditch，nordidtheycampaigninthewinter。Allthesethingswerepermittedbytheirmilitaryrules，anddevisedbythemtoavoid，asI
havesaid，bothfatigueanddangers;thustheyhavebroughtItalytoslaveryandcontempt。
[*]AlberigodaConio。AlbericodaBarbiano，CountofCunioinRomagna。Hewastheleaderofthefamous"CompanyofStGeorge，"
composedentirelyofItaliansoldiers。Hediedin1409。