WemustpossessasetofMediatorsinterestedinmaintainingharmonybetweentheheterogeneousparticlesofourmixedconstitution；aspeciesofDrillSerjeantsisrequiredforthemaintenanceofdisciplineamongtheundulatingandtumultuousmultitude。TheremustbeasetofnoisyOratorsprovidedforthosewhoaremoreeasilycaptivatedbystrengthoflungsthanbystrengthofargument；Declaimersforthosewhoarecontrouledbysentimentalism；
andimaginative，facetious，orsatiricalOrators，forthosewhoseobjectitistobeamused；Reasonersforthesmallnumber，whoyieldonlytoreason；
artfulandenterprisingmentoscourthecountrytoobtainandcalculatethenumberofvotes：theremustalsobeaclassofmeningoodreputeatcourt，whomaymaintainagoodunderstandingbetweentheheadandthemembers。
Andallthis，theysay，mustbepaidfor———whethercorrectlyornot，doesnotbelongtoourpresentdiscussion。
Itmaybefurthersaid，thatthematterofreward，besidesbeingusedforreward，maybeusedasameansofpower，———andthatinamixedconstitutionlikeours，itisnecessarytomaintainabalanceamongitspowers。Certaincreationsofpeerstherefore，forexample，whichcouldnotbejustified，ifconsideredasrewards，maybejustifiedasdistributionsofpower。Thereisatleastsomethinginthiswhichdeservesexamination；
butitsexaminationherewouldbeoutofplace。
Wantofeconomyinthedistributionofrewardsmayalsobeattemptedtobejustified，bycomparingthesumsoexpendedwiththeexpenseincurredinthecarryingonofawar。Iadviseeveryonewhohasprojectsuponthepublicmoney，toemploythisargumentinpreferencetoeveryother：whenonecalculatestheimmensesumexpendedduringasinglecampaign，eitherbylandorsea；whenwereflectonthemillionsthatvanishinsoundandsmoke，allotherprofusionsinksintoinsignificance。Whenwebeholdthetreasuresofanationflowingawayinsuchrapidtorrents，cananygreatindignationbefeltagainstthosewho，byart，orobsequiousness，orcourtfavour，detachfromthemassasingledroporasmallstreamfortheirownbenefit？Ifthepeoplesoreadilylendthemselvestothegratificationofpoliticalpassions———iftheypartsofreelywiththeirgoldandtheirblood，forthemomentarygratificationoftheirvengeanceortheirpassionforglory，———canitbeexpectedthattheywillmurmuratthepomptheycovet，andthefewinsignificantfavourswhichtheirprincebestows？Willtheybesupposedsomeanastobeniggardwithpenceandlavishwithmillions？
Thismodeofcomparisonisnotnewtocourts：itoughttohavebeenfamiliartoLouisXIV。ifitbetrue，asthereisreasonforbelieving，thatthebuildingofVersaillescosttwothousandmillionsoflivres。Inrespectofexpense，thiswasmorethanequaltoawar：butatleastitwasexpendedwithoutbloodshed，therewasnointerruptionoftrade；onthecontrary，itgavevigourtoindustry，andshedlustreoverthearts。Whatafortunatesourceofcomparisontotheadvocatesofabsolutemonarchy！
Thereisyetanothermodeofestimatingthejustnessofanypublicexpenditure———anothersourceofcomparisonsomewhatlessagreeabletotheeyesofcourtiers。Comparetheamountoftheproposedexpenditurewithanequalportionoftheproduceofthemostvexatiousandburthensometax。Inthiscountry，forexample，letthecomparisonbemadewiththeproduceofthetaxonlawproceedings，whoseeffectistheplacingofthegreatmajorityofthepeopleinastateofoutlawry。Theoptionliesbetweentheabolitionofthistaxandtheproposedemploymentofitsproduce。Theythusbecometworivalservices。Itisaseveretestforfrivolousexpenses，butitisstrictlyjust。Howdisgracefuldoeswastefulluxuryappearinthebudget，whenthusputincompetitionwiththegoodwhoseplaceitoccupies，ortheevilofwhichitpreventsthecure！
Fromtheseobservationsthepracticalconclusionis，thatthematterofrewardbeingallofitcostly，noneofitoughttobethrownaway。Thispreciousmatterislikethedew：notadropofitfallsupontheearthwhichhasnotpreviouslybeendrawnupfromit。
Alluprightsovereignthereforegivesnothing。Hebuysorhesells。Hisbenevolenceconsistsineconomy。Wouldyoupraisehimforgenerosity？Praisealsotheguardianwholavishesamonghisservantsthepropertyofhispupils。
ThemostliberalamongtheRomanEmperorswerethemostworthless；forexample，Caligula，Claudius，Nero，Otho，Vitellius，Commodus，Heliogabalus，andCaracalla：thebest，asAugustus，Vespasian，Antoninus，MarcusAurelius，andPertinax，werefrugal。（EspritdesLois，liv。v。ch。xviii。）
Amostimportantlessontosovereigns：itwarnsthemnottovaluethemselvesuponthevirtueofgenerosity———inshort，nottothinkthatintheirstationgenerosityisavirtue。Ifnotastrictlylogicalargument，itis，however，apopularandpersuasiveinduction：———``Esteemnotyourselvestobegoodprincesforaqualityinwhichyouhavebeenoutstrippedbytheworst。’’
RRBook1Chapter6TheRationaleofRewardBookIOfRewardsinGeneralChapterVIREMUNERATIONEX—POST—FACTOIntheprecedingchapteritwasstated，thatinaccordancewiththeprincipleofutility，thecostlymatterofrewardoughtonlytobeemployedintheproductionofservice；andthat，inaccordancewiththatprinciple，arewardcanonlyconsistofaportionofthematterofreward，employedasamotivefortheproductionofservice。Thiswouldseemtoexcludeeverythingwhichcanbecalledliberality———everyactbywhicharewardmaybebestoweduponanyservicetowhichithasnotbeenpromisedbeforehand。
Suchmayappeartheconsequenceatfirstsight。
Areward，itmaybesaid，oughtonlytobebestowedupontheperformanceoftheservicetowhichithasbeenpromised；sinceitisonlywhereithasbeenforeseen，thatitcanhaveoperatedasamotive。Whythenbestowituponaservice，howusefulandimportantsoever，towhichithasnotbeenpromised？Theserviceyouwouldhavebeenwillingtopurchase，attheexpenseofacertainreward，hasbeenhappilyrenderedwithoutanyengagementonyourparttobeartheexpense。Why，therefore，shouldanyrewardbebestowed？whypretendtoemployrewardintheproductionofaneffectwhichhasbeenproducedwithoutit？Isnotthisauselessemploymentofreward？———isnotthisanexpenditureinpurewaste？
Certainlysuchanexpensecannotbejustifiedasameansofproducinganeffect，whichhasbythesuppositionalreadybeenproduced；butitmaybejustifiedasservingtogivebirthtoothereffectsofalikenature，aslikelytocausefutureservicestoberendered，whichwillagreewiththosethatarepast———atleastinthis，thattheyareservices。
Arewardwhichthusfollowstheservicemaybestyledanexpostfacto，orunpromisedreward。TheSocietyofArtshasrecognisedandemployedthisdistinction。Arewardbestowedinfulfilmentofapromise，upontheperformanceofaspecifiedservice，iscalledapremium。Arewardbestowedwithoutpreviouspromise，iscalledabounty。
Tomakeitarulenevertograntarewardwhichhasnotbeenpromised，istotieupthehandsoftrueliberality，andtorenounceallchanceofreceivinganynewkindofservice。Thereisonlyonesuppositionwhichcanjustifythisparsimony：itis，thateveryservicehasbeenforeseenandendowedbeforehand。Whetherlegislationwilleverattainthisperfection，Ipretendnottoknow。Ithasnotattaineditasyet；andtillitbeattained，sovereignsmayreckonliberalityamongstthenumberoftheirvirtues。
Rewardswhichinthismannerarethefruitsofliberality，possessagreatadvantageoverthosewhichareawardedinvirtueofapromise。These，confinedtooneobject，operateonlyupontheindividualservicespecified。Thegenialinfluenceoftheothersextendsoverthewholetheatreofmeritoriousactions。Theseareusefulindeterminingresearchestoaparticularpoint；theotherspresentanirritationtoextendthemtoeverythingwhichthehumanmindcangrasp。Thesearelikethewaterwhichthehandofagardenerdirectstoaparticularflower；theothersarelikethedewwhichisdistilledoverthewholesurfaceoftheearth。
Apromisedreward，bestowedupononewhohasnotdeservedit，isentirelylost。Anunpromisedretard，thusimproperlybestowed，isnotnecessarilylost。Thehandofliberalityhasbeendeceived，buttheutilityoftherewardisnotaltogetherthrownaway，whilstopportunityisleftforabetterapplicationofitinfuture。HadAlexanderlavisheduponthemanwho，toobtainhisbounty，exhibitedhisskillindartinggrainsofmilletthroughtheeyeofaneedletherewardshebestoweduponAristotle，itwouldhavebeenaproofofprodigalityandfolly，whoseeffectwouldhavebeentomultiplytheraceofmountebanksandjugglers。InrewardingAristotle，he，withoutdoubt，rewardedmuchjargon，ofnogreatervaluethanthisman’ssleightofhandindartingmillet；butsince，inthemidstofthisjargon，acertainquantityofuseful，andatthattimenew，truthwasfound，therewardswhichthiscelebratedphilosopherreceivedmayjustlybeplacedtotheaccountofusefulliberality：theirtendencywastomultiplythepreciousraceofinstructorsofmankind———theraceofphilosophers。
Infact，certainactsofliberality，whichcouldnotbejustified，ifconsideredaspromisedrewards，maydeservemoreorlessindulgence，maypossessasortofutilityofthesamekindasthatwhichbelongstorewardsnotpromised。Eventheactregardedasservicemaynotstrictlydeservetobeconnectedwithreward；butthedispositiondisplayedbythedistributinghandinawardingarecompense，maygivebirthtotheexpectationofsimilarrewardsforreallymeritoriousservice。
Rewardsbestowedinpursuanceofapromise，maybeconsideredasconferredaccordingtoalawbelongingtotheclassofwrittenlaws；whilstunpromisedrewards，thoughnotproductiveofsimilarevilsmaybeconsideredasestablishingakindoflaw，orrathertacitrule，analogoustothatestablishedbymeansofpunishment，inwhatiscalledunwrittenlaw。Itwouldbefortunate，indeed，ifthepenallawmightremainunwrittenwithaslittleinconvenienceasremuneratorylaw。Inthepenal，andeventhecommonlycalledcivilbranches，theseunwrittenlawsdevelopethemselvesbyatrainofhardships，nottosayofinjuries；
whilsttheworstwhichcanhappenintheremuneratorybranchofunwrittenlawisthis，that，byreasonofitsbeingunknown，itmaybecomeatissueofuselessbounty。
CatherineII。didnotallowtheremuneratorybranchofherlawstobeexposedeventothisdanger，fromwhichthereissolittletobefeared。Hadthehandofliberalitybeenexpanded———wasthedewofrewardpouredoutupontheheadofmerit———immediatelyinsertedintheGazette，thenotificationoftherewardconnectedwiththenameoftheindividual，andtheservicewhichhaddeservedit，wasresoundedthroughoutthemostdistantandunfrequentedpartsofhervastempire。Itwouldhavebeenaltogetherglorious，hadshehastenedtogivethesamecharacterofpublicityandcertaintytothoseotherbranchesofunwrittenlaw，inwhichitisrequiredwithsomuchgreaterurgency，andhadsheneverconferredfavourswhichshewouldhaveblushedtoseegazetted。
InEngland，anobleexampleofreward，expostfacto，wasexhibitedinconnexionwiththefirstestablishmentofmail—coaches。Themanagerofaprovincialtheatrehaving，proposedtotheministerthisplanforthebetterconveyanceofletters，theplanwasreceived，andhavingbeentriedinonepartofthekingdom，itwasafterwardsextendedtothewhole：andthisservicebeinginconsequenceperformedwithacelerityandeconomyofwhichformerlytherewasnoidea，———asareward，theinventorwasappointedComptroller—Generalofthepost—office，withasalaryof£；1500perannum，besidesaproportionofthesavings。Arewardthusjudiciousandequitable。transportsustotheyear2440。Itisequivalenttoaproclamationtothiseffect：``Menofgeniusandindustry，employyourtalentsfortheserviceofyourcountry；
exertyourselvestotheutmost；produceyourplans；theirreceptionshalldependaloneupontheopinionformedoftheirutility；yourcountrywillnotgrudgethelabournecessaryfortheirexamination。Goodintentionsshallnotbetreatedwithcontempt；youshallnotbenicknamedprojectorsbytheidleandtheincapable。Yourplansshallnotbedisregardedbecauseoftheirauthors；theyshallnotbethrownasidebecausetheyareextraordinary，providedtheybeuseful。Impartialityshallpresideattheirexamination，andtheirutilityshallbethemeasureofyourreward。’’
Theremayappearatfirstsightadiscrepancybetweenthisandtheimmediatelyprecedingchapter，butitisonlyinappearance。
Isayhere，nolessthanheretofore，thattheuprightdispenserofpublictreasuresgivesnothing。Hebuysorbesells。Withpromisedrewardshepurchasesbespoken，clearlydefined，andlimitedservices；withunpromisedrewardshepurchasesservicesunbespoken，indeterminate，andinfinite。
Thedifficultyinbothcasesconsistsinmakingaproperchoiceoftheactiontoberewarded。Thischoicewillformthesubjectofsubsequentconsideration。
RRBook1Chapter7TheRationaleofRewardBookIOfRewardsinGeneralChapterVIIPUNITIONANDREMUNERATION———THEIRRELATIONWherefore，throughoutthewholefieldoflegislation，cannotrewardbesubstitutedforpunishment？Ishopealesspowerfulincentivetoactionthanfear？Whenapoliticalpharmacopoeiahasthecommandofbothingredients，whereforeemploythebitterinsteadofthesweet？
Tothesenaturalbutunreflectinginquiries，I
replybyamaximthatatfirstviewmayappearparadoxical：———``Rewardoughtnevertobeemployed，whenthesameeffectcanbeproducedbypunishment。’’
And，insupportofthisparadox，Iemployanother：———``Letthemeansbepenal，andthedesiredeffectmaybeattainedwithoutgivingbirthtosuffering：
letthemeansberemuneratory，andsufferingisinevitable。’’
Theoracularstyle，however，beingnolongerinfashion，Ishallinplainlanguagegivethesolutionofthisenigma。
Whenapunishmentisdenouncedagainstthebreachofalaw，ifthe1awbenotbroken，nooneneedbepunished。Whenarewardispromisedtoobedience，ifeverybodyobeythelaw，everybodyoughttoberewarded。Ademandforrewardsisthuscreated：andtheserewardscanonlybederivedfromthelabourofthepeople，andcontributionsleviedupontheirproperty。
Incomparingintheirrespectivepropertiesofpunishmentandreward，weshallfindthatthefirstisinfiniteinquantity，powerfulinitsoperation，andcertaininitseffect，sothatitcannotberesisted：thatthesecondisextremelylimitedinquantity，oftentimesweakinitsoperation，andatalltimesuncertaininitseffect：thedesireafteritvaryingexceedingly，accordingtothecharacterandcircumstancesofindividuals。Wemayremarkagain，thattheprospectofpunishmentsaddens，whilstthatofrewardanimatesthemind；thatpunishmentblunts，whilerewardsharpenstheactivity；thatpunishmentdiminishesenergy，whilerewardaugmentsit。
Itisrewardalone，andnotpunishment，whichamanoughttoemploy，whenhisobjectistoprocureservices，theperformanceofwhichmayormaynotbeinthepowerofthosewithwhomhehastodo。
Thisconsidered，wereitnecessarytodrawaroughlinebetweentheprovincesofrewardandpunishmentinafewwords，wemightsay，thatpunishmentwaspeculiarlysuitedtotheproductionofactsofthenegativestamp———rewardtotheproductionofactsofthepositivestamp。Tositstillanddonothing，isinthepowerofeverymanatalltimes：toperformagivenserviceisinmanyinstancesinthepowerofoneindividualalone，andthatonlyupononeindividualoccasion。Thisarrangementofnaturesuitsverywellwiththeunlimitedplenitudeofthefundofpunishmentontheonehand，andthelimitedamplitudeofthefundofrewardontheother。Thenegativeacts，ofwhichthepeaceandwelfareofmankindrequiretheperformance，areincessantandinnumerable，andmustbeexactedatthehandsofeveryman：thepositiveacts，ofwhichtheperformanceisrequired，arecomparativelyfew，performableonlybycertainpersons，andbythemoncertainoccasionsonly。Nottosteal，nottomurder，nottorob，mustberequiredatalltimesatthehandsofeveryman：totakethefieldforthepurposeofnationaldefence———tooccupyaplaceinthesuperiordepartmentsofexecutiveorlegislativegovernment———areactswhichitisneithernecessarynorpropertoexactatthehandsofmorethanafew，orofthemexceptonparticularoccasions。Todiscoveraspecificremedyfordisease，toanalyzeamineral，toinventamethodofascertainingaship’slongitudewithinagivendistance，todeterminethequadratureofsuchorsuchacurve，———areworkswhich，ifdonebyoneman，needneverbedoneagain。
Itisthusalsowithregardtosuchextraordinaryservicesasdependuponaccident；suchasthegivingofinformationwhenrequired，eitherinthejudicialoranyotherbranchofadministration。
Areyouignorantwhetheranindividualisinpossessionoftheinformationinquestion，orifinpossessionofit，whetherhebedisposedtocommunicateit？Punishmentwouldmostprobablybebothinefficaciousandunjustasameansofacquiringthisknowledge：resort，then，toreward。
Inregardtoextraordinaryservicesdependinguponpersonalqualification，theimproprietyofpunishmentandtheproprietyofrewardarethegreater，whentheutilityoftheserviceissusceptibleofanindeterminatedegreeofexcellenceasisthecasewithworksofliterature，ofscience，andthefinearts。Inthesecases，rewardnotonlycallsforthintoexercisetalentsalreadyexisting，butevencreatesthemwheretheydidnotexist。Itisthepropertyofhope，oneofthemodificationsofjoy，toputaman，asthephraseis，intospirits；thatis，toincreasetherapiditywithwhichtheideasbeisconversantaboutsucceedeachother，andthustostrengthenhispowersofcombinationandinvention，bypresentingtohimagreatervarietyofobjects。Thestrongerthehope，sothatithavenottheeffectofdrawingthethoughtsoutoftheproperchannel，themorerapidthesuccessionofideas；themoreextensiveandvariedthetrainsformedbytheprincipleofassociation，thehetterfed，asitwere，andmorevigorous，willbethepowersofinvention。Inthisstate，theattentionismoresteady，theimaginationmorealert，andtheindividual，elevatedbyhissuccess，beholdsthecareerofinventiondisplayedbeforehim，anddiscoverswithinhimselfresourcesofwhichhehadhithertobeenignorant。
Ontheonehand，letfearbetheonlymotivethatpromptsamantoexerthimself，hewillexerthimselfjustsomuchashethinksnecessarytoexempthimfromthatfear，andnomorebutlethopebethemotive，hewillexerthimselftotheutmost，especiallyifhehavereasontothinkthatthemagnitudeofthereward（orwhatcomestothesamething，theprobabilityofattainingit）willriseinproportiontothesuccessofhisexertions。
Suchisthenatureofextraordinaryservices，thatitisneitherpracticablenordesirableforthemtobeperformedbyalargemultitudeofpersons。Ifpunishment，then，werethemeansemployedtoinducementoperformthem，itwouldbenecessarytopitchuponsomeselectpersonsasthoseonwhomtoimposetheobligation。Butofthepersonalqualificationsofindividuals，thelegislator，assuch，canhavenoknowledge。Thecasewillalsobenearlythesame，evenwiththeexecutivemagistrate，ifthenumberofthepersonsunderhisdepartmentbeconsiderable：forantecedentlytospecificexperienceintheverylineinquestion，aman’spersonalqualificationsforanysuchextraordinarytaskarenottobeconjecturedapriori，butfromanintimateacquaintance———suchanacquaintanceasitisimpossibleamanshouldhavewithsolargenumber。Theconsequenceis，thatamonganymultitudeofpersonsthustakenatrandom，thegreaternumberwouldnotperformthetask，becausetheywouldnotbeabletoperformit。Butinthiscase，bythesupposition，theymustallbepunished：heretherewouldbeavastmassofpunishmentlaidoninwaste，andperhapstheendnotcompassedafterall———amassofpunishmentimpartingbeyondcomparisonmorepainthanitwouldcosttoprovideasufficientquantityofreward。
Ontheotherhand，letrewardbeemployedandnotanatomneedbespentinwaste；foritmaybeeasilysoapplied，anditiscommonsotoapplyit，asthatitshallbebestowedinthoseinstancesonlyinwhichtheendiscompassed———inthoseinstancesinwhichnotonlyabenefitisattained，butabenefitmorethanequivalenttotheexpense。
Bypunishment，agreatexpensewouldheincurred，andthatforthesakeofafaintchanceofsuccess；byreward，asmallexpenseisincurred，andthatnotwithoutacertaintyofsuccess。
Again，punishmentinthesecaseswouldnotonlybelesslikelytoproducetherequisiteeffect，butwouldhaveatendencytopreventit。Howlittlesoeverthemagistratemightbequalifiedtocollectandtojudgeofappearancesofrapacity，forsuchappearanceshewould，however，naturallykeepsomesortoflook—out。Toexhibitthoseappearanceswouldthereforebetorunachanceofincurringtheobligationandthepunishmentannexedtoit。Theconsequenceisobvious：tomakesureofnotappearingqualified，menwouldtakecarenottobeso。Wearetold，thatinSiam，whenamanhasatreeofextraordinarygoodfruit，itisseizedfortheking’suse。Ifthisbetrue，wemaywellimaginethatgardeningdoesnotmakeanyveryextraordinaryprogressintheneighbourhoodofthecourtofSiam。Naturemustdomuch，forart，wemaybecertain，willdonothing。Wearetolduponbetterauthority，ofatimewhenitwasthecustomtogivecommissionstoofficerstolookoutforthebestsingers，andpressthemintotheking’sservice：unlesstheywerewellpaidatthesametime，whichwouldhaverenderedthealarmoccasionedbypressingneedless，onewouldnotgivemuchtohearthemusicofthatday。
Thatselection，whichincasesliketheseistoimpracticableinpublic，isnotequallysoindomesticlife。Toparentsandotherpreceptors，itisbynomeansimpracticabletomakeuseofpunishmentasamotive。Theyareenabledtouseit，becausetheintimacyoftheiracquaintancewiththeirpupilsingeneralenablesthemtogiveaprettygoodguessatwhattheyareabletoperform。Itmay，perhaps，evenbenecessarytohaverecoursetothisincentive———beforethenaturalloveofeasehasbeengotunderbyhabit，andespeciallybeforetheauxiliarymotiveoftheloveofreputationhastakenroot，andwhilethetenderintellecthasnotasyetacquiredsufficientexpansionandfirmnesstoreceiveandretaintheimpressionsofdistantpleasures。
Isayperhaps———foritcertainlymightbepracticabletodowithmuchlessofthisbitterrecipe，thaninthepresentstateofeducationiscommonlyapplied。Allapparatuscontrivedonpurposemightatleastbespared。Towardsprovidingasufficientstockofincentivesforallpurposes，agreatdealmoremightbedonethaniscommonlydone，inthewayofrewardalone：byalittleingenuityintheinvention，andalittlefrugalityintheapplication；byestablishingaconstantconnexionbetweenenjoymentanddesert；grantinglittleornothingbutwhatispurchased；andthustransformingintorewardsthewholestockofgratification，oratleastsomuchofitasisrequisite。Ifpunishmentshouldstillbenecessary，mereprivationsseemtoaffordinallcasesasufficientstore。Acompletestockofincentivesmightthusbeformedoutofenjoymentsalone：punishment，bythesuspensionofsuchasarehabitual：
reward，bytheapplicationofsuchaoccasionallyarise。[1]
Butevenwhenappliedbyparentsandpreceptors，punishment，howwellsoeveritmaysucceedinraisingskilltoitsordinarylevel，willneverraiseithigher：oneoftheimperfectionsofpunishmentremainsstillinsuperable。Accordingly，inthetrainingofyoungmindstoqualifythemfortheachievementofextraordinaryworksofgenius，thebusinessisbestmanaged，andindeedinacertaindegreeiscommonlymanaged，bypunishmentandrewardstogether；insuchsort，thatintheearlierpartofman’scareer，andintheearlierstagesoftheprogressoftalent，amixtureofpunishmentsandrewardsbothshallbeemployed：andthat，bydegrees，punishmentshallbedroptaltogether，andtheforceemployedconsistofrewardalone。
Thereremainsthecaseinwhichrewardisproper，becausepunishment———atleastpunishmentalone———wouldbeunprofitable。
Byunprofitable，Imeannotinefficacious，butuneconomical，unfrugal———theinterestofthewholecommunitytogetherbeingtakenintotheaccount，notforgettingthatoftheparticularmemberonwhomtheburthenwouldbetobeimposed，andconsequentlythepunishment，incaseofnon—performance，tobeinflicted。
Thisseemstobethecasewithallthoseofficeswhich，standingalone，areofficesofmereburthen，whetherthepartyfavouredbethepublicatlargeoranyindividualorclassofindividuals：
inallcasesthelabourerisworthyofhishire；andunlessitbewheneverymanmustlabour，nomanoughttobemadetolabourwithouthishire———thecommonsoldiernomorethanthegeneral，thecommonseamannomorethantheadmiral，theconstablenomorethanthejudge。
Trueitis，thattakeanymanforexample，itmaywithproprietybesaid，thatthepublichasarighttohisservices，hasarighttocommandhisservices，forthattheinterestofanyonemanoughttogivewaytotheinterestofall。Butifthisbetrueastoanyonemanwhohappenstobefirsttaken，equallytrueisitofanyother，andsoinsuccessionofeveryman。Ontheonehand，then，eachmanisunderanobligationtosubmittoanyburthenthatshallbeproposed；ontheotherhand，eachmanhasanequalrighttoseetheburthenimposed，notuponhimself，butuponsomeother。Ifeitherofthesepropositionsbetakenintheirfullextent，asmuchmaybesaidinfavouroftheoneofthemasoftheother。Inthiscase，iftherewerenomiddlecoursetotake，thingsmustrestinstatuquo，thescaleofutilitymustremaininequilibrium，oneman’sinterestweighingneithermorenorlessthananother’s；theburthenwouldbebornebynobody，andtheimmunityofeachwouldbethedestructionofall。Butthereisamiddlecoursetotake，whichis，todividetheburthen，andlayitinequalproportionuponeveryman。
Theprincipleisindisputable：
theapplicationofitisnotfreefromdifficulties。Therearemanycasesinwhichtheindividualburthencannotbedivided：anoffice，thedutiesofwhichitrequiresbutonemantoperform，cannotbedividedamongstathousand。Butamassofprofitmaybeformedsufficienttocounterbalancetheinconveniencewhichamanwouldsustainbybearingtheoffice。Lettherequisitemassofprofitbetakenfromthegeneralfund，andtheburthenisdistributedproportionablyamongstthedifferentmembersofthecommunity。
Anexpedientsometimespractisedinthesecases，is，insteadofdistributingtheburthenoftheoffice，tolayitonentireuponsomeoneperson，accordingtolot。Thispreventstheinjusticetherewouldbeinlayingituponanyonebydesign：butitdoesnotcorrecttheinequality。Themischiefofpartialityandinjusticeareobviated；butnotsothesufferingsofhimuponwhomtheunfortunatelotfalls。Theprincipleofutilityisinthiscaseonlypartiallyfollowed。
Itisoneofthoseinstancesinwhichtheprincipleofutilitywouldseemtohavegivenoccasiontoawrongconclusion。Accordingtothisprinciple，itissaidthattheinterestoftheminorityoughttobesacrificedtothatofthemajority。Theconclusionisjust，ifitwereimpossibletoavoidasacrifice；palpablyfalse，ifitis。Buttochargethisasadefectupontheprincipleitself，isasreasonableasitwouldbetomaintainthattheartofbookkeepingisamischievousart，becauseentriesmaybeomitted。
Wearenowpreparedforestablishingacomparisonbetweenpunishmentandreward。
1。Punishmentisbestadaptedforrestraintorprevention———rewardforexcitementandproduction：theoneisabridle，theother，aspur。
2。Ineverycasewhereeveryextensivemischiefmaybeproducedbyasingleact，andparticularlyinthecaseofsuchactsasmaybeperformedatanytime，punishmentistheonlyrestrainttobedependedon：suchisthecaseofcrimesingeneral。Whentheactendeavouredtobeproducedisinaneminentdegreebeneficial，itispropertoemployrewardalone，ortocombinepunishmentwithreward，thatthepowerofthegoverningmotivemaybedoubled。
3。Consideringtheabundanceoftheone，andscarcityoftheother，punishmentistheonlyeligiblemeansofregulatingtheconductofpeopleingeneral：rewardoughttobereservedfordirectingtheactionsofparticularindividuals。Bypunishment，mischievouspropensitiesaresubdued；byreward，valuablequalificationsareimproved。Punishmentisaninstrumentfortheextirpationofnoxiousweeds：rewardisahotbedforraisingfruit，whichwouldnototherwisebeproduced。
4。Necessitycompelstheemploymentofpunishment：
rewardisaluxury。Discardthefirst，andsocietyisdissolved：discardtheother，anditstillcontinuestosubsist，thoughdeprivedofaportionofitsamenityandelegance。
5。Ineverycasewheretheserviceisofsuchanatureasthatnoindividualpossessedofthequalificationsrequisiteforitsperformancecanwithcertaintybeselected，thedenunciationofpunishmentwouldonlyproduceapprehensionandmisery，anditsapplicationbebutsomuchinjuryinflictedinwantonwaste。
Ineverysuchcase，offerareward，andittravelsforthinquestofhiddenorunknowntalents：evenifitfailinitssearch，itproducesnoevil———notanatomofitislost：itisgivenonlywhentheserviceisperformed，whentheadvantageobtainedeitherequalsorsurpassestheexpense。
Bythehelpoftheseobservations，weshallbeenabledtoappreciatetheopinionofthosepoliticianswho，afterasuperficialexaminationofthissubject，condemnlegislatorsingeneralforthesparingusemadeofthematterofreward。
TheauthorofTheWealthofNations，whohasdisplayedsuchextraordinarysagacityinallhisresearches，hasuponthispointbeenledawaybymistakennotionsofhumanity。``Fear’’，sayshe，``isinalmostallcasesamiserableinstrumentofgovernment。’’
（WealthofNations，B。V。ch。16。）Itisaninstrumentwhichhasoftentimesbeenmuchpervertedfromitsproperuse；butitisanecessaryinstrument，andtheonlyoneapplicabletotheordinarypurposesofsociety。
Ayoungking，inthefirstardourforimprovement，havingresolvedtopurgehiskingdomfromallcrimes，wasnotsatisfiedwiththisalone。Hisnaturalgentlenesswasshockedattheideaofemployingpunishment。Hedeterminedtoabolishitaltogether，andtoeffecteverythingbyreward。Hebeganwiththecrimeoftheft：butinashorttime，allhissubjectswereentitledtoreward；allofthemwerehonest。Everydaytheywereentitledtonewrewards；theirhonestyremainedinviolate。Aschemeforpreventingsmugglingwasproposedtohim。``Wiseking’’，itwassaid，``foreverypennythatoughttobepaidintoyourtreasury，givetwo，andthehydraisvanquished。’’Thevictorywascertain；butheperceivedthat，likethatofPyrrhus，itwouldbesomewhatcostly。
Adistinctionwhichexistsbetweendomesticandpoliticalgovernmentmaybebereworthnoticing。Nosovereignissorichastobeabletoeffecteverythingbyreward。Thereisnoparentwhomaynot。AtSparta，abitofblackbreadwastherewardofskill。Thestockofpleasuresandofwantsisaninexhaustiblefundofrewardinthehandsofthoseparentswhoknowhowtoemployit。
RRBook1Chapter8TheRationaleofRewardBookIOfRewardsinGeneralChapterVIIIREMUNERATION———WHEREHURTFUL。Arewardismischievouswhenitstendencyistoproduceoffences，ortogivebirthtonoxiousdispositions。
Toofferarewardtoanindividualasaninducementtohimtocommitanactprohibitedbylaw，istoattempttosubornhim：
theoffencemaybecalledsubornation。Uponthepresentoccasion，thisillegalsubornationisnotthesubjectofconsideration。therewardsofwhichweareabouttospeak，haveacorruptivetendency，butdonotpossessthecharacterofcrimes；theyareauthorizedbycustom，sanctionedbythelaw，andgivenandreceivedwithoutdisguise，withoutcriminalintention：
theevilisdonewithapureconscience，andoftenwiththepublicapprobation。
Theyaretheresultoferroneousconceptions，theeffectsofuniversalprejudice，orlong—establishedhabit，which，asMontaignesays，bluntstheacutenessofthejudgment。
Thepresentisoneofthoseextremelydelicatetopics，inrespectofwhichitmaybemoreprudenttoputthereaderinthepathoftruth，andleavehimtotravelbyhimselfinquestofdiscoveries，thangoingthroughthesubjectindetail，towoundestablishedopinions，orinterferewithindividualinterests。Withoutrestrictingmyselftoanypreciseorder，Ishallthereforeexhibitsomefewexamplesinwhichthemischievoustendencyistoopalpabletoadmitofdenial，andIshallbeingwithanincontrovertiblemaxim，whichwillfurnishthecriterionofwhichweareuponthepresentoccasioninsearchfordistinguishinggoodfromevil：———
``Uponalloccasionsavoidbestowinganythingintheshapeofreward，whichmaytendtointerferewiththeperformanceofduty。’’
Accordingtothisrule，ajudgeoughtnottofindhimselfinterestedintheprolongationoflawproceedings———theministerofstateinthepromotionofwars———thesuperintendentinpromotingexpense———themoralpreceptorinsettinganexampleofinsincerity———themanoflettersinmaintainingmischievousprejudicesattheexpenseoftruth。Themorenarrowlywescrutinizeintothesourcesofpublicevils，themorethoroughlyshallwebeconvincedthattheyoughttobeattributedtotheneglectofthisfundamentalrule。
Insupportofthismaxim，itisnotnecessarytoascribetomeningeneralallextraordinaryproclivitytowardscorruption：
ordinaryprudenceandprobityaresufficienttoenableamuntoresisttemptationstocrimes，ortolendhimtoabstainfromwhateverisreputeddishonourable；butitrequiressomewhatmorethanordinaryhonestyandprudencetobeproofagainsttheseductionsofaninterestthatactswithcontinualenergy，andwhosetemptationsarenotopposedeitherbythefearoflegalpunishment，orthecondemnationofpublicopinion：toyieldtosuchtemptations，itisonlynecessaryforhimtofollowinthebeatentrack，inwhichbewillbecheeredbythepresenceofamultitudeoffellow—travellers，andencouragedbytheexampleofhissuperiors。Toresisttheseseductions，hemustexposehimselftotheimputationofsingularity———hemustproclaimthatheisbetterthanothers———hemustcondemnhiscolleaguesandpredecessors，andbeboldenoughtomakeanexhibitionofhisprobity。Suchmagnanimityisnotaltogetherunexampled，butwemustnotreckonuponprodigies。Thereareevensomecasesinwhich，byitssecresy，thisseductiveinterestissomuchthemoremischievous：itoperateslikeaconcealedmagnet，andproduceserrorsinthemoralconductagainstwhichtherehasbeennopreviouswarning。Wehavesaidthatthelegislatoroughttoendeavourtocombineinterestwithduty；forastillstrongerreasonoughthetoavoidasmuchaspossibleeverythingthatyieldstothepublicfunctionaryacertainoracasual，aknownoranunknownprofit，resultingfromtheomissionorviolationofhisduties：wenowproceedtogiveafewexamples。
InEngland，thesuperiorjudges，besidetheiramplesalaries，whichitwouldbeimpropertogrudgethem，receivecertainfeeswhichitisimpossiblenottogrudgethem；sinceitisfromthissourcealonethattheycangenerallybeconsideredliabletocorruption，andthatsomuchthemoreeasily，sincetheymaybesubjecttoitsinfluencewithoutthemselvesperceivingit。Thesefeesaremultipliedinproportiontotheincidentsofprocedure，themultiplicationofwhichincidentsproportionablyincreasestheexpenseanddelayofobtainingjustice。Inonecase，ajudgereceivesnearly£；4fortying，forsixmonthsorayear，thehandsofjustice；andthisinoneofthosecasesinwhichindolenceaddsherseductionstothoseofavarice，andthewholeiseffectedinthepresenceofnootherwitnessesthansuchasareurgedonwardbyastillstrongerinteresttoaggravatetheabuse。
Anotherexamplefromamongathousand。UndertheLordChancellor，therearetwelvesubordinatejudgescalledMastersinChancery。Whenanaccountistobetakenbeforethem，thefollowingisthemodeofprocedure：Theattorneysontheonesideandtheotheroughttoappearbeforethemaster，eitheralone，orincompanywithcounsel，asmaybeconvenient。Firstsummons；nobodyappears：secondsummons；nobodyappears：atlength，thirdsummons；thepartiesappear，andthematterisputintotrain。Care，however，hasbeentakentoallowonlyhalfanhouroranhourtoeachsetofsuitors。Thepartiesarenotalwayspunctual：
thematterisbegun，theclockstrikes，andthenthematterisdismissed。
Atthefollowinghearingitisnecessarytobeginagain。Allthisismatterofetiquette。Ateachsummons，thefeestothejudgesandthecounselarerenewed。Alltheworldmustlive。Extortion，itissaid，istobebanishedfromthedwellingsoffinance。Atsomefutureday，perhaps，itwillnotbefoundafittingguestfortheTempleofJustice———itwillbedeemedadvisabletochaseitthence。
InEnglandaselsewhere，itisasked，whylawsuitsareeternal？Thelawyerssayitisowingtothenatureofthings。Otherpeoplesayitisthefaultofthelawyers。Theabovetwolittletraits，whichareastwograinsofsandpickedupinthedesertsofArabia，mayassistthejudgmentastothecausesofdelayinsuchprocedures。
3。Previouslytotheyear1782，theemolumentsofthepaymasterofthearmy，whosedutyassuchconsistedinsigning，orknowinghowtosign，hisname，wereconsiderablyhigherintimeofwarthanintimeofpeace，beingprincipallyconstitutedofapercentageonthemoneyexpendedinhisdepartment。Thisgreatofficer，however，alwaysfoundhimselfamemberofparliament；anditisbelievedhewasthuspaid，notforsigning，orknowinghowtosign，hisname，butfortalking，andknowinghowtotalk。Uponaquestionofpeaceorwar，theprobityofthisoratormusthavefounditselfinsomewhatanawkwardpredicament，continuallybesiegedasitmusthavebeenbyBellonawiththeofferofanenormousrevenue，whichwastoceaseimmediatelyhesufferedhimselftobecorruptedbyPeace。Whenthequestionofeconomicalreformwasuponthecarpet，thisplacewasnotforgotten。Itwasgenerallyfeltatthattime，thatsodecidedanoppositionbetweeninterestanddutywascalculatedtoproducethemostperniciousconsequences。Theemolumentsofpeaceandwarwere，therefore，equalizedbyattachingafixedsalarytotheoffice，andthesameplanwasadoptedwithrespecttovariousotheroffices。
Inrunningoverthelistoffunctionaries，fromthehighesttothelowest，onecannotbutbealarmedatthevastproportionofthemwhowatchforwarasforaprey。Itisimpossibletosaytowhatadegree，bythispersonalinterest，themostimportantmeasuresofgovernmentaredetermined。Itcannotbesupposedthatministersofstate，generals，admirals，ormembersofparliament，areinfluencedintheslightestdegreebyavilepecuniaryinterest。Allthesehonourablepersonspossessprobityaswellaswisdom，sothatatrifleofmoneynevercanproducetheslightestinfluenceupontheirconduct，noteventheeffectofanatomupontheimmovablemassoftheirprobity。Themischiefis，thatevil—mindedpersonsarenotconvincedbytheirassertion，butcontinuetorepeat，that———``Thehonestywhichresiststemptationismostnoble，butthatwhichfliesfromitismostsecure。’’[1]
4。Inpublicandprivateworksofalldescriptions，itiscustomarytopaythearchitectapercentageupontheaggregateamountexpended。Thisarrangementisagoodone，whenthesumtobeexpendedisfixed：thereisdangerinthecontrarycase，sincethegreatertheexpense，thegreateristhearchitect’specuniaryprofit。
5。Veracityisoneofthemostimportantbasesofhumansociety。Thedueadministrationofjusticeabsolutelydependsuponit；whatevertendstoweakenit，sapsthefoundationsofmorality，security，andhappiness。Themorewereflectonitsimportance，themoreweshallbeastonishedthatlegislatorshavesoindiscreetlymultipliedtheoperationswhichtendtoweakenitsinfluence。
Whenthepossessionoftherevenues，orotherprivilegesattachedtoacertainconditionoflife，dependsuponthepreviousperformanceofcertainactswhicharerequiredatenteringuponthatcondition，theseprivilegescannotfailtooperateuponindividualsasincentivestotheperformanceofthoseacts：theeffectproducedisthesameasiftheywereattachedtosuchperformanceunderthetitleofreward。
If，amongthenumberoftheseacts，promiseswhichareneverperformedarerequiredunderthesanctionofanoath，theseprivilegesorotheradvantagescanonlyberegardedasrewardsofferedforthecommissionofperjury。Ifamongthenumberoftheseacts，itberequiredthatcertainopinionswhicharenotbelievedshouldbepretendedtobebelieved，theseadvantagesareneithermorenorlessthanrewardsofferedforinsincerity。
Butthesanctionofanoathoncecontemned，iscontemnedatalltimes。
Oathsmayafterwardsbeobserved，buttheywillnotbeobservedbecausetheyareoaths。
IntheuniversityofOxford，amongwhosemembersthegreaternumberofecclesiasticalbeneficesarebestowed，andwhichevenforlaymenisthemostfashionableplaceofeducation，———whenayoungmanpresentshimselfforadmission，histutor，whoisgenerallyaclergyman，andthevice—chancellor，whoisalsoaclergyman，putintohishandsabookofstatutes，ofwhichtheycausehimtosweartoobserveeveryone。Atthesametime，itisperfectlywellknowntothisvice—chancellorandtothistutor，thatthereneverhasbeenanypersonwhowasabletoobserveallthesestatutes。Itisthusthatthefirstlessonthisyoungmanlearns，andtheonlylessonheissuretolearn，isalessonofperjury。[3]
Noristhisall：hisnextstepistosubscribe，intestimonyofhisbelief，toadogmaticalformularycomposedabouttwocenturiesago，assertedbytheChurchofEnglandtobeinfalliblytrue，andbymostotherchurchesbelievedtobeasinfalliblyfalse。Bythisexpedient，oneclassofmenisexcluded，whilethreeclassesareadmitted。
Theclassexcludediscomposedofmenwho，eitherfromasenseofhonour，orfromconscientiousmotives，cannotprevailuponthemselvespubliclyanddeliberatelytoutteralie。Theclassesadmittedconsist———1。Ofthosewholiterallybelievethesedogmas；2。Ofthosewhodisbelievethem；3。
OfthosewhosignthemastheywouldsigntheAlcoran，withoutknowingwhattheysign，orwhattheythinkaboutit。AnearlysimilarpracticeispursuedatCambridge；andfromthesetwosourcestheclergyoftheChurchofEnglandaresupplied。
Socrateswasaccusedasacorruptorofyouth。Whatwasmeantbythisaccusation，Iknownot。ButthisIknow，thattoinstructtheyounginfalsehoodandperjury，istocorruptthem；andthatthebenefitofalltheotherlessonstheycanlearncanneverequalthemischiefofthisinstruction。{SeeAppendix（A。）}
6。Itmaybeinquired，whetherrewardsorotheradvantagesoughttobeofferedforthedefenceofanyopinioninmattersoftheoryorscience，oranyothersubjectuponwhichopinionsaredivided？
{SeeAppendix（B。）}Ifthequestionbeoneofpurecuriosity，theworstthatcanhappenwillbethattherewardwillbeexpendedinwaste。Butiftheopinionthusfavouredhappentobeafalseone，andatthesametimemischievous，therewardwillbeproductiveofunmixedevil。Butwhetheritbeaquestionofcuriosityoruse，iftruthbetheobjectdesired，thechanceofobtainingitisnotsogreataswhenthecandidatesforrewardareallowedtoseekitwheresoeveritmaybetobefound。Iferrorbetobedefended，toofferarewardforitsdefencewouldbeone，ifnottheonly，methodtobeadopted。Whoistherethatdoesnotperceive，thattoobtaintruetestimony，itisinexpedienttoofferarewardtothewitnesswhoshalldeposeuponagivenside？———whodoesnotknowthattheconstanteffectofsuchanofferistodiscreditthecauseofhimwhomakesit？
Ifthen，anythingbetobegainedbysuchpartiality，itcanonlybebyerror：truthcanonlybealoserbysuchpartialreward。
Thispracticeisattendedwithanotherandmoremanifestinconvenience：itisthatofcausingopinionstobeprofessedwhicharenotbelieved———ofinducingatruculentexchange，notonlyoftruth，butofsincerity，formoney。Idonotknowifgovernmentsoughteventopermitindividualstoofferrewardsupontheseconditions。Toestablisherror，torepudiatetruth，tosubornfalsehood；———these，inafewwords，aretheeffectsofallrewardsestablishedinfavourofonesystemtotheexclusionofallothers。
7。Charityiseveranamiablevirtue；butifinjudiciouslyemployed，itisliabletoproducemoreevilthangood。Hospitalsinconsideratelymultiplied，regulardistributionsofprovisions，suchaswereformerlymadeatthedoorsofmanyconventsinSpainandItaly，tendtohabituatealargeproportionofthepeopletoidlenessandbeggary。Arewardthusofferedtoindolence，impoverishesthestateandcorruptsthepeople。Luxury（andIannextothiswordwhatevermeaning，exceptthatofprodigality，peoplechoosetogivetoit）luxury，thatpretendedvicesomuchreprobatedbytheenviousandmelancholic，isthesteadyandnaturalbenefactorofthehumanspecies；itisamasterwhoisalwaysdoinggood，evenwhenheaimsnotatit；herewardsonlytheindustrious。Charityisalsoabenefactor，butgreatcircumspectionisrequiredthatitmayproveso。
8。Thereisanothermannerinwhichrewardmaybemischievous：byactinginoppositiontotheservicerequired———when，forexample，theemolumentsattachedtoanofficearesuchastoaffordthemeansandtemptationnottofulfilthedutiesofit。Insuchacase，whatmayappearaparadoxisnotthelessagreattruth：thewholedoeslessthanapart；bypayingtoomuch，thesovereignislesseffectuallyserved。Butthissubjectbelongsnaturallytotheheadofsalaries。
9。Whateverweakenstheconnexionbetweenpunishmentsandoffences，operatesinproportionasanencouragementtothecommissionofoffences。Ithastheeffectofarewardofferedfortheirperpetration，forwhethertheinducementtocommitoffencesbeaugmented，ortherestrainingmotivesdebilitated，theresultinbothcasesisthesame。
Thus，ataxonjusticeisanindirectrewardofferedforinjustice。Thesameisthecasewithrespecttoalltechnicalrulesbywhich，independentlyofthemerits，nullitiesareintroducedintocontractsandintoprocedure———ofeveryrulethatexcludestheevidenceofawitness，theonlydepositoryofthefactuponwhichdependsthedueadministrationofjustice。Inaword，itisthesamewitheverythingthattendstoloosentheconnexionbetweeninjuryandcompensation，betweentheviolationofthelawandpunishment。
Ifweopenoureyes，weshallbeholdthesamelegislatorsestablishingrewardsforinformers，andtaxesandfeesuponlawproceedings：
theydesirethatthefirstshouldinducementorenderthemservicesofwhichtheystandinneed，whilstthelattertendtoweakenthenaturaldispositionwhichisfelttorenderthesesameservices。Atthethresholdofthetribunalofjusticeareplacedabaitandabugbear：thebaitoperatesuponthefew———thebugbearuponthemultitude。
10。Therearecasesinwhich，toavoidgreaterinconvenience，ithasbeenfoundnecessarytodisposeofthematterofrewardinsuchmannerasthatitshalloperateasarewardforthemostatrociouscrime；yet，inspiteoftheforceofthetemptation，thiscrimeisalmostunexampled。Ialludetotheruleestablishedwithrespecttosuccessions。Happily，whatevermaybetheforceoftheseductivemotivesinthiscase，thetutelarymotivesactinfullconcertwithalltheirenergy。
Therearemanymenwhoforatriflingpersonalbenefit，foranadvanceinrank，oreventogratifytheirspleen，wouldwithoutscrupleusetheirutmostexertionstoproduceawarthatwouldcostthelivesoftwoorthreehundredthousandoftheirfellowcreatures；whileamongthesementherewouldnotbefoundperhapsone，who，thoughheweresetfreefromthedreadoflegalpunishment，couldbeinduced，foramuchgreateradvantage，toattemptthelifeofasingleindividual，andstilllessthelifeofparentwhosedeathwouldputhiminpossessionofafortuneoratitle。
Butthoughlawscannotbeframedforitscompleteremoval，nothingwhichcanbedonewithoutinconvenienceoughttobeleftundone，towardsthediminutionofthisdanger。Thepersonsmostexposedtobecomeitsvictims，arethosewhoarenecessarilyplacedunderthecontroulofothers，suchasinfantsandwomen。Itisundertheguidanceofthisprinciple，thatourlawsinsomecaseshaveselectedasguardiansthosepersonsuponwhomnointerestcandevolveinthewayofsuccession。UnderthelawsofSweden，precautionsofthesamedescriptionareobserved；andithasbeenelsewhereshownthatthisconsiderationfurnishesoneoftheargumentsinfavourofthelibertyofdivorce。
Contractsrelatingtoinsurancefurnishanotherinstanceofthesamedanger。Thesecontracts，inotherrespectssobeneficial，havegivenbirthtoanewspeciesofcrime。Amaninsuresashiporahouseatapricegreatlybeyonditsvalue，withtheintentionofsettingfiretothehouseorcausingtheshiptobelost，andthen，underpretenceofcompensationforthelossofwhichheistheauthor，claimsthemoneyforwhichtheinsuranceismade。Thusoneofthemostbeneficialinventionsofcivilizedsocietyisconvertedintoapremiumfordishonesty，andapunishmenttovirtuousindustry。Hadthecommissionofthiscrimebeenattendedwithlessrisk，orbeenlessdifficulttoconceal，thismostadmirablecontrivanceforsofteninginevitablecalamitiesmusthavebeenabandoned。
RRBook1Chapter9TheRationaleofRewardBookIOfRewardsinGeneralChapterIXREMUNERATION———WHERENEEDLESS。Factitiousrewardissuperfluous，whenevernaturalrewardisadequatetoproducethedesiredeffect。
Underthisheadmaybeclassedallinventionsinthearts，whichareusefultoindividuals，andwhoseproductsmaybecomearticlesofcommerce。Intheordinarycourseofcommerce，theinventorwillmeetwithanaturalrewardexactlyproportionatetotheutilityofhisdiscovery，andwhichwillunitewithinitselfallthequalitieswhichcanbedesiredinafactitiousreward。Afterthemostmatureconsideration，nosovereigncanfindanothermeasuresoexactasisthusaffordedbythefreeoperationsoftrade。Allthatthegovernmenthastodoistosecureforatime，totheinventor，whateverbenefithisdiscoverymayyield。
Thisisgenerallydonebythegrantofanexclusiveprivilegeorpatent。
Ofthisweshallelsewherespeakmoreindetail。
Notmanyyearsagoagrantof£；3000wasmadebyparliamenttoaphysicianforthediscoveryofayellowdye。Thatmoneymight，withoutdoubt，havebeenworseemployed。
Buttherewardwasunnecessary：forthisdiscovery，asforallothersinthearts，thepropertestofitsutilitywouldhavebeenitsuseinmanufacturesandcommerce。Thegrantofadeterminatesumwasalosseithertotheinventorortothepublic：totheinventor，ifitwerelessthanhewouldhavegainedunderapatent：tothepublic，ifitweremore。Inaword，whereverpatentsforinventionsareinuse，factitiousrewardiseithergroundlessorsuperfluous。
Ishallelsewheretreatoftheencouragementstobegiventotheartsandsciences。Uponthepresentoccasion，allthatIshallobserveis，thatthegreatertheprogresstheyhavemade，thelessnecessaryisittotaxthepublicfortheirsupport。Inthiscountry，forexample，iftheexclusivepropertyinhisworkbesecuredtoanauthor，arewardisatthesametimesecuredtohimproportionatetotheservicehehasperformed———atleastineverybranchofamusementorinstructionthatyieldsasufficientclassofreaders。Thereisnopatrontobecomparedwiththepublic；andbythehonourwithwhichitaccompaniestheotherrewardsitbestows，thispatronagehasadecidedadvantageoveranythatcanbereceivedfromsnyothersource。
WithrespecttotherewardsthatinsomeEuropeanstateshavebeenbestoweduponpoets，theamountofthemissoinsignificantastosavethemfromtheseverescrutinytowhichtheymight，underothercircumstances，havefoundthemselvesexposed。Therearesomecountriesinwhichtherelishforliteratureisconfinedtosuchsmallnumbers，thatitmay，uponthewhole，bebeneficialtoencourageitbyfactitiousrewards。
Butifweconsiderhowintensearetheenjoymentsofthemanbornwithpoetictalents，thesuddenreputationwhichtheyproduce，andtheampleprofittheyoftenyield，especiallyinthedramaticline，itwillbefoundthatthenaturalrewardsattachedtothemarefarfrombeinginconsiderable；
andthat，atleast，ourattentionought，inthefirstplace，tobedirectedtothedepartmentofthesciences，theapproachestowhicharerepulsive，andtheutilityofwhichisindisputable。Happinessdependsuponthecorrectnessofthefactswithwhichourmindisfurnished，andtherectitudeofourjudgment；butpoetryhasnoverydirecttendencytoproduceeithercorrectnessofknowledgeorrectitudeofjudgment。Foroneinstanceinwhichithasbeenemployedtocombatmischievousprejudices，athousandmightbecitedinwhichtheyhavebeenfosteredandpropagatedbyit。Homeristhegreatestofpoets：whereshallweplacehimamongmoralists？Cananygreatadvantagebederivedfromtheimitationofhisgodsandheroes？Idonotcondemnprizesforpoetrywheretheobjectistoexciteyouthfulemulation：Ionlydesirethatseriousandtrulyusefulpursuitsmayreceiveaproportionateencouragement。
RRBook1Chapter10TheRationaleofRewardBookIOfRewardsinGeneralChapterXPROPORTIONASTOREWARDS。Conferringreward，theobservanceofexactrulesofproportionisnotnearlyofthesameimportance，asintheinflictionofpunishment。Theserulescannot，however，beneglectedwithimpunity。Iftoogreatarewardbeheldoutforagivenservice，competitorswillbeattractedfrommoreusefulpursuits。Iftoolittle，thedesiredservicewilleithernotberendered，orwillnotberenderedinperfection。
RuleI。Theaggregatevalueofthenaturalandfactitiousrewardoughtnottobelessthansufficienttooutweightheburthenoftheservice。
RuleII。Factitiousrewardsmaybediminished，inproportionasnaturalrewardsareincreased。
Thesetworulespresentthreesubjectstoourobservation：———1。
Thenaturalburthensattachedtotheservice；———2。Thenaturalrewardswhicheitherdoordonotrequirefactitiousrewardtosupplytheirdeficiency；———3。
Thedrawback，moreorlesshidden，whichinavarietyofcasesalterstheapparentvalueofthereward。