Catherinethoughttosucceedbetterin1562bypromulgatinganedictaccordingProtestantstherighttouniteinthepubliccelebrationoftheircult。
　　Thistolerance，veryadmirablefromaphilosophicalpointofview，butnotatallwisefromthepoliticalstandpoint，hadnootherresultbeyondexasperatingbothparties。IntheMidi，wheretheProtestantswerestrongest，theypersecutedtheCatholics，soughttoconvertthembyviolence，cuttheirthroatsiftheydidnotsucceed，andsackedtheircathedrals。IntheregionswheretheCatholicsweremorenumeroustheReformerssufferedlikepersecutions。
　　Suchhostilitiesastheseinevitablyengenderedcivilwar。Thusarosetheso—calledreligiouswars，whichsolongspilledthebloodofFrance。Thecitieswereravaged，theinhabitantsmassacred，andthestrugglerapidlyassumedthatspecialqualityofferocitypeculiartoreligiousorpoliticalconflicts，which，atalaterdate，wastoreappearinthewarsofLaVendee。
　　Oldmen，women，andchildren，allwereexterminated。AcertainBarond’Oppede，firstpresidentoftheParliamentofAix，hadalreadysetanexamplebykilling3，000personsinthespaceoftendays，withrefinementsofcruelty，anddestroyingthreecitiesandtwenty—twovillages。Montluc，aworthyforerunnerofCarrier，hadtheCalviniststhrownlivingintothewellsuntilthesewerefull。TheProtestantswerenomorehumane。TheydidnotspareeventheCatholicchurches，andtreatedthetombsandstatuesjustasthedelegatesoftheConventionweretotreattheroyaltombsofSaintDenis。
　　UndertheinfluenceoftheseconflictsFrancewasprogressivelydisintegrated，andattheendofthereignofHenriIII。wasparcelledoutintoveritablelittleconfederatedmunicipalrepublics，formingsomanysovereignstates。Theroyalpowerwasvanishing。TheStatesofBloisclaimedtodictatetheirwishestoHenriIII。，whohadfledfromhiscapital。In1577thetravellerLippomano，whotraversedFrance，sawimportantcities——
　　Orleans，Tours，Blois，Poitiers——entirelydevastated，thecathedralsandchurchesinruins，andthetombsshattered。ThiswasalmostthestateofFranceattheendoftheDirectory。
　　Amongtheeventsofthisepoch，thatwhichhasleftthedarkestmemory，althoughitwasnotperhapsthemostmurderous，wasthemassacreofSt。Bartholomewin1572，ordered，accordingtothehistorians，byCatherinedeMedicisandCharlesIX。
　　Onedoesnotrequireaveryprofoundknowledgeofpsychologytorealisethatnosovereigncouldhaveorderedsuchanevent。St。
　　Bartholomew’sDaywasnotaroyalbutapopularcrime。CatherinedeMedicis，believingherexistenceandthatofthekingthreatenedbyaplotdirectedbyfourorfiveProtestantleaderstheninParis，sentmentokillthemintheirhouses，accordingtothesummaryfashionofthetime。ThemassacrewhichfollowedisverywellexplainedbyM。Battifolinthefollowingterms：——
　　``AtthereportofwhatwasafoottherumourimmediatelyranthroughParisthattheHuguenotswerebeingmassacred；Catholicgentlemen，soldiersoftheguard，archers，menofthepeople，inshortallParis，rushedintothestreets，armsinhand，inordertoparticipateintheexecution，andthegeneralmassacrecommenced，tothesoundofferociouscriesof`TheHuguenots！Kill，kill！’Theywerestruckdown，theyweredrowned，theywerehanged。Allthatwereknownashereticsweresoserved。TwothousandpersonswerekilledinParis。’’
　　Bycontagion，thepeopleoftheprovincesimitatedthoseofParis，andsixtoeightthousandProtestantswereslain。
　　Whentimehadsomewhatcooledreligiouspassions，allthehistorians，eventheCatholics，spokeofSt。Bartholomew’sDaywithindignation。Theythusshowedhowdifficultitisforthementalityofoneepochtounderstandthatofanother。
　　Farfrombeingcriticised，St。Bartholomew’sDayprovokedanindescribableenthusiasmthroughoutthewholeofCatholicEurope。
　　PhilipII。wasdeliriouswithjoywhenheheardthenews，andtheKingofFrancereceivedmorecongratulationsthanifhehadwonagreatbattle。
　　ButitwasPopeGregoryXIII。aboveallwhomanifestedthekeenestsatisfaction。Hehadamedalstrucktocommemoratethehappyevent，[2]orderedjoy—firestobelitandcannonfired，celebratedseveralmasses，andsentforthepainterVasaritodepictonthewallsoftheVaticantheprincipalscenesofcarnage。Further，hesenttotheKingofFranceanambassadorinstructedtofelicitatethatmonarchuponhisfineaction。Itishistoricaldetailsofthiskindthatenableustocomprehendthemindofthebeliever。TheJacobinsoftheTerrorhadamentalityverylikethatofGregoryXIII。
　　[2]Themedalmusthavebeendistributedprettywidely，forthecabinetofmedalsattheBibliothequeNationalepossessesthreeexamples：oneingold，oneinsilver，andoneincopper。
　　Thismedal，reproducedbyBonnaniinhisNumism。Pontific。
　　（vol。i。p。336），representsononesideGregoryXIII。，andontheotheranangelstrikingHuguenotswithasword。TheexergueisUgonotorumstrages，thatis，MassacreoftheHuguenots。
　　（Thewordstragesmaybetranslatedbycarnageormassacre，asensewhichitpossessesinCiceroandLivy；oragainbydisaster，ruin，asenseattributedtoitinVirgilandTacitus。）
　　NaturallytheProtestantswerenotindifferenttosuchahecatomb，andtheymadesuchprogressthatin1576HenriIII。wasreducedtograntingthem，bytheEdictofBeaulieu，entirelibertyofworship，eightstrongplaces，and，intheParliaments，ChamberscomposedhalfofCatholicsandhalfofHuguenots。
　　Theseforcedconcessionsdidnotleadtopeace。ACatholicLeaguewascreated，havingtheDukeofGuiseatitshead，andtheconflictcontinued。Butitcouldnotlastforever。WeknowhowHenriIV。putanendtoit，atleastforatime，byhisabjurationin1593，andbytheEdictofNantes。
　　Thestrugglewasquietedbutnotterminated。UnderLouisXIII。
　　theProtestantswerestillrestless，andin1627RichelieuwasobligedtobesiegeLaRochelle，where15，000Protestantsperished。Afterwards，possessingmorepoliticalthanreligiousfeeling，thefamousCardinalprovedextremelytoleranttowardtheReformers。
　　Thistolerancecouldnotlast。Contrarybeliefscannotcomeintocontactwithoutseekingtoannihilateeachother，assoonasonefeelscapableofdominatingtheother。UnderLouisXIV。theProtestantshadbecomebyfartheweaker，andwereforcedtorenouncethestruggleandliveatpeace。Theirnumberwasthenabout1，200，000，andtheypossessedmorethan600churches，servedbyabout700pastors。ThepresenceofthesehereticsonFrenchsoilwasintolerabletotheCatholicclergy，whoendeavouredtopersecutetheminvariousways。Asthesepersecutionshadlittleresult，LouisXIV。resortedtodragonnadingthemin1685，whenmanyindividualsperished，butwithoutfurtherresult。Underthepressureoftheclergy，notablyofBossuett，theEdictofNanteswasrevoked，andtheProtestantswereforcedtoacceptconversionortoleaveFrance。
　　Thisdisastrousemigrationlastedalongtime，andissaidtohavecostFrance400，000inhabitants，menofnotableenergy，sincetheyhadthecouragetolistentotheirconscienceratherthantheirinterests。
　　6。TheresultsofReligiousRevolutions。
　　IfreligiousrevolutionswerejudgedonlybythegloomystoryoftheReformation，weshouldbeforcedtoregardthemashighlydisastrous。Butallhavenotplayedalikepart，thecivilisinginfluenceofcertainamongthembeingconsiderable。
　　Bygivingapeoplemoralunitytheygreatlyincreaseitsmaterialpower。Weseethisnotablywhenanewfaith，broughtbyMohammed，transformsthepettyandimpotenttribesofArabiaintoaformidablenation。
　　Suchanewreligiousbeliefdoesnotmerelyrenderapeoplehomogeneous。Itattainsaresultthatnophilosophy，nocodeeverattained：itsensiblytransformswhatisalmostunchangeable，thesentimentsofarace。
　　WeseethisattheperiodwhenthemostpowerfulreligiousrevolutionrecordedbyhistoryoverthrewpaganismtosubstituteaGodwhocamefromtheplainsofGalilee。Thenewidealdemandedtherenunciationofallthejoysofexistenceinordertoacquiretheeternalhappinessofheaven。Nodoubtsuchanidealwasreadilyacceptedbythepoor，theenslaved，thedisinheritedwhoweredeprivedofallthejoysoflifeherebelow，towhomanenchantingfuturewasofferedinexchangeforalifewithouthope。Buttheaustereexistencesoeasilyembracedbythepoorwasalsoembracedbytherich。Inthisaboveallwasthepowerofthenewfaithmanifested。
　　NotonlydidtheChristianrevolutiontransformmanners：italsoexercised，foraspaceoftwothousandyears，apreponderatinginfluenceovercivilisation。Directlyareligiousfaithtriumphsalltheelementsofcivilisationnaturallyadaptthemselvestoit，sothatcivilisationisrapidlytransformed。Writers，artistsandphilosophersmerelysymbolise，intheirworks，theideasofthenewfaith。
　　Whenanyreligiousorpoliticalfaithwhatsoeverhastriumphed，notonlyisreasonpowerlesstoaffectit，butitevenfindsmotiveswhichimpelittointerpretandsojustifythefaithinquestion，andtostrivetoimposeituponothers。TherewereprobablyasmanytheologiansandoratorsinthetimeofMoloch，toprovetheutilityofhumansacrifices，astherewereatotherperiodstoglorifytheInquisition，themassacreofSt。
　　Bartholomew，andthehecatombsoftheTerror。
　　Wemustnothopetoseepeoplespossessedbystrongbeliefsreadilyachievetolerance。Theonlypeoplewhoattainedtotolerationintheancientworldwerethepolytheists。Thenationswhichpractisetolerationatthepresenttimearethosethatmightwellbetermedpolytheistical，since，asinEnglandandAmerica，theyaredividedintoinnumerablesects。
　　Underidenticalnamestheyreallyadoreverydifferentdeities。
　　Themultiplicityofbeliefswhichresultsinsuchtolerationfinallyresultsalsoinweakness。Wethereforecometoapsychologicalproblemnothithertoresolved：howtopossessafaithatoncepowerfulandtolerant。
　　Theforegoingbriefexplanationrevealsthelargepartplayedbyreligiousrevolutionsandthepowerofbeliefs。Despitetheirslightrationalvaluetheyshapehistory，andpreventthepeoplesfromremainingamassofindividualswithoutcohesionorstrength。Manhasneededthematalltimestoorientatehisthoughtandguidehisconduct。Nophilosophyhasasyetsucceededinreplacingthem。
　　CHAPTERIII
　　THEACTIONOFGOVERNMENTSINREVOLUTIONS
　　1。ThefeebleresistanceofGovernmentsintimeofRevolution。
　　Manymodernnations——France，Spain，Italy，Austria，Poland，Japan，Turkey，Portugal，&c。——haveknownrevolutionswithinthelastcentury。Thesewereusuallycharacterisedbytheirinstantaneousqualityandthefacilitywithwhichthegovernmentsattackedwereoverthrown。
　　Theinstantaneousnatureoftheserevolutionsisexplainedbytherapidityofmentalcontagionduetomodernmethodsofpublicity。
　　Theslightresistanceofthegovernmentsattackedismoresurprising。Itimpliesatotalinabilitytocomprehendandforeseecreatedbyablindconfidenceintheirownstrength。
　　Thefacilitywithwhichgovernmentsfallisnothoweveranewphenomenon。Ithasbeenprovedmorethanonce，notonlyinautocraticsystems，whicharealwaysoverturnedbypalaceconspiracies，butalsoingovernmentsperfectlyinstructedinthestateofpublicopinionbythepressandtheirownagents。
　　AmongtheseinstantaneousdownfallsoneofthemoststrikingwasthatwhichfollowedtheOrdinancesofCharlesX。Thismonarchwas，asweknow，overthrowninfourdays。HisministerPolignachadtakennomeasuresofdefence，andthekingwassoconfidentofthetranquillityofParisthathehadgonehunting。
　　Thearmywasnotintheleasthostile，asinthereignofLouisXVI。，butthetroops，badlyofficered，disbandedbeforetheattacksofafewinsurgents。
　　TheoverthrowofLouis—Philippewasstillmoretypical，sinceitdidnotresultfromanyarbitraryactiononthepartofthesovereign。ThismonarchwasnotsurroundedbythehatredwhichfinallysurroundedCharlesX。，andhisfallwastheresultofaninsignificantriotwhichcouldeasilyhavebeenrepressed。
　　Historians，whocanhardlycomprehendhowasolidlyconstitutedgovernment，supportedbyanimposingarmy，canbeoverthrownbyafewrioters，naturallyattributedthefallofLouis—Philippetodeep—seatedcauses。Inrealitytheincapacityofthegeneralsentrustedwithhisdefencewastherealcauseofhisfall。
　　Thiscaseisoneofthemostinstructivethatcouldbecited，andisworthyofamoment’sconsideration。IthasbeenperfectlyinvestigatedbyGeneralBonnal，inthelightofthenotesofaneye—witness，GeneralElchingen。Thirty—sixthousandtroopsweretheninParis，buttheweaknessandincapacityoftheirofficersmadeitimpossibletousethem。Contradictoryordersweregiven，andfinallythetroopswereforbiddentofireonthepeople，who，moreover——andnothingcouldhavebeenmoredangerous——werepermittedtominglewiththetroops。Theriotsucceededwithoutfightingandforcedthekingtoabdicate。
　　Applyingtotheprecedingcaseourknowledgeofthepsychologyofcrowds，GeneralBonnalshowshoweasilytheriotwhichoverthrewLouis—Philippecouldhavebeencontrolled。Heproves，notably，thatifthecommandingofficershadnotcompletelylosttheirheadsquiteasmallbodyoftroopscouldhavepreventedtheinsurgentsfrominvadingtheChamberofDeputies。Thislast，composedofmonarchists，wouldcertainlyhaveproclaimedtheCountofParisundertheregencyofhismother。
　　SimilarphenomenawereobservableintherevolutionsofSpainandPortugal。
　　Thesefactsshowtheroleofpettyaccessorycircumstancesingreatevents，andprovethatonemustnotspeaktooreadilyofthegenerallawsofhistory。WithouttheriotwhichoverthrewLouis—Philippe，weshouldprobablyhaveseenneithertheRepublicof1848，northeSecondEmpire，norSedan，northeinvasion，northelossofAlsace。
　　IntherevolutionsofwhichIhavejustbeenspeakingthearmywasofnoassistancetothegovernment，butdidnotturnagainstit。Itsometimeshappensotherwise。Itisoftenthearmywhicheffectstherevolution，asinTurkeyandPortugal。TheinnumerablerevolutionsoftheLatinrepublicsofAmericaareeffectedbythearmy。
　　Whenarevolutioniseffectedbyanarmythenewrulersnaturallyfallunderitsdomination。IhavealreadyrecalledthefactthatthiswasthecaseattheendoftheRomanEmpire，whentheemperorsweremadeandunmadebythesoldiery。
　　Thesamethinghassometimesbeenwitnessedinmoderntimes。Thefollowingextractfromanewspaper，withreferencetotheGreekrevolution，showswhatbecomesofagovernmentdominatedbyitsarmy：——
　　``Onedayitwasannouncedthateightyofficersofthenavywouldsendintheirresignationsifthegovernmentdidnotdismisstheleadersofwhomtheycomplained。Anothertimeitwastheagriculturallabourersonafarm（metairie）belongingtotheCrownPrincewhodemandedthepartitionofthesoilamongthem。
　　ThenavyprotestedagainstthepromotionpromisedtoColonelZorbas。ColonelZorbas，afteraweekofdiscussionwithLieutenantTypaldos，treatedwiththePresidentoftheCouncilasonepowerwithanother。DuringthistimetheFederationofthecorporationsabusedtheofficersofthenavy。Adeputydemandedthattheseofficersandtheirfamiliesshouldbetreatedasbrigands。WhenCommanderMiaoulisfiredontherebels，thesailors，whofirstofallhadobeyedTypaldos，returnedtoduty。
　　ThisisnolongertheharmoniousGreeceofPericlesandThemistocles。ItisahideouscampofAgramant。’’
　　Arevolutioncannotbeeffectedwithouttheassistanceoratleasttheneutralityofthearmy，butitoftenhappensthatthemovementcommenceswithoutit。Thiswasthecasewiththerevolutionsof1830and1848，andthatof1870，whichoverthrewtheEmpireafterthehumiliationofFrancebythesurrenderofSedan。
　　Themajorityofrevolutionstakeplaceinthecapitals，andbymeansofcontagionspreadthroughthecountry；butthisisnotaconstantrule。WeknowthatduringtheFrenchRevolutionLaVendee，Brittany，andtheMidirevoltedspontaneouslyagainstParis。
　　2。HowtheresistanceofGovernmentsmayovercomeRevolution。
　　Inthegreaternumberoftherevolutionsenumeratedabove，wehaveseengovernmentsperishbytheirweakness。Assoonastheyweretouchedtheyfell。
　　TheRussianRevolutionprovedthatagovernmentwhichdefendsitselfenergeticallymayfinallytriumph。
　　Neverwasrevolutionmoremenacingtothegovernment。AfterthedisasterssufferedintheOrient，andtheseveritiesofatoooppressiveautocraticregime，allclassesofsociety，includingaportionofthearmyandthefleet，hadrevolted。Therailways，posts，andtelegraphserviceshadstruck，sothatcommunicationsbetweenthevariousportionsofthevastempirewereinterrupted。
　　Theruralclassitself，formingthemajorityofthenation，begantofeeltheinfluenceoftherevolutionarypropaganda。Thelotofthepeasantswaswretched。Theywereobliged，bythesystemofthemir，tocultivatesoilwhichtheycouldnotacquire。Thegovernmentresolvedimmediatelytoconciliatethislargeclassofpeasantsbyturningthemintoproprietors。Speciallawsforcedthelandlordstosellthepeasantsaportionoftheirlands，andbanksintendedtolendthebuyersthenecessarypurchase—moneywerecreated。Thesumslentweretoberepaidbysmallannuitiesdeductedfromtheproductofthesaleofthecrops。
　　Assuredoftheneutralityofthepeasants，thegovernmentcouldcontendwiththefanaticswhowereburningthetowns，throwingbombsamongthecrowds，andwagingamercilesswarfare。Allthosewhocouldbetakenwerekilled。Suchexterminationistheonlymethoddiscoveredsincethebeginningoftheworldbywhichasocietycanbeprotectedagainsttherebelswhowishtodestroyit。
　　Thevictoriousgovernmentunderstoodmoreoverthenecessityofsatisfyingthelegitimateclaimsoftheenlightenedportionofthenation。Itcreatedaparliamentinstructedtopreparelawsandcontrolexpenditure。
　　ThehistoryoftheRussianRevolutionshowsushowagovernment，allofwhosenaturalsupportshavecrumbledinsuccession，can，withwisdomandfirmness，triumphoverthemostformidableobstacles。Ithasbeenveryjustlysaidthatgovernmentsarenotoverthrown，butthattheycommitsuicide。
　　3。RevolutionseffectedbyGovernments。——Examples：
　　China，Turkey，&c。
　　Governmentsalmostinvariablyfightrevolutions；theyhardlyevercreatethem。Representingtheneedsofthemomentandgeneralopinion，theyfollowthereformerstimidly；theydonotprecedethem。Sometimes，however，certaingovernmentshaveattemptedthosesuddenreformswhichweknowasrevolutions。Thestabilityorinstabilityofthenationalminddecreesthesuccessorfailureofsuchattempts。
　　Theysucceedwhenthepeopleonwhomthegovernmentseekstoimposenewinstitutionsiscomposedofsemi—barbaroustribes，withoutfixedlaws，withoutsolidtraditions；thatistosay，withoutasettlednationalmind。SuchwastheconditionofRussiainthedaysofPetertheGreat。WeknowhowhesoughttoEuropeanisethesemi—Asiaticpopulationsbymeansofforce。
　　Japanisanotherexampleofarevolutioneffectedbyagovernment，butitwashermachinery，nothermindthatwasreformed。
　　Itneedsaverypowerfulautocrat，secondedbyamanofgenius，tosucceed，evenpartially，insuchatask。Moreoftenthannotthereformerfindsthatthewholepeoplerisesupagainsthim。
　　Then，tothecontraryofwhatbefallsinanordinaryrevolution，theautocratisrevolutionaryandthepeopleisconservative。
　　Butanattentivestudywillsoonshowyouthatthepeoplesarealwaysextremelyconservative。
　　Failureistherulewiththeseattempts。Whethereffectedbytheupperclassesorthelower，revolutionsdonotchangethesoulsofpeoplesthathavebeenalongtimeestablished。Theyonlychangethosethingsthatarewornbytimeandreadytofall。
　　Chinaisatthepresenttimemakingaveryinterestingbutimpossibleexperiment，inseeking，bymeansofthegovernment，suddenlytorenewtheinstitutionsofthecountry。TherevolutionwhichoverturnedthedynastyofherancientsovereignswastheindirectconsequenceofthediscontentprovokedbyreformswhichthegovernmenthadsoughttoimposewithaviewtoamelioratingtheconditionofChina。Thesuppressionofopiumandgaming，thereformofthearmy，andthecreationofschools，involvedanincreaseoftaxationwhich，aswellasthereformsthemselves，greatlyindisposedthegeneralopinion。
　　AfewculturedChineseeducatedintheschoolsofEuropeprofitedbythisdiscontenttoraisethepeopleandproclaimarepublic，aninstitutionofwhichtheChinesecouldhavehadnoconception。
　　Itsurelycannotlongsurvive，fortheimpulsewhichhasgivenbirthtoitisnotamovementofprogress，butofreaction。Thewordrepublic，totheChinamanintellectualisedbyhisEuropeaneducation，issimplysynonymouswiththerejectionoftheyokeoflaws，rules，andlong—establishedrestraints。Cuttingoffhispigtail，coveringhisheadwithacap，andcallinghimselfaRepublican，theyoungChinamanthinkstogivethereintoallhisinstincts。ThisismoreorlesstheideaofarepublicthatalargepartoftheFrenchpeopleentertainedatthetimeofthegreatRevolution。
　　Chinawillsoondiscoverthefatethatawaitsasocietydeprivedofthearmourslowlywroughtbythepast。Afterafewyearsofbloodyanarchyitwillbenecessarytoestablishapowerwhosetyrannywillinevitablybefarsevererthanthatwhichwasoverthrown。Sciencehasnotyetdiscoveredthemagicringcapableofsavingasocietywithoutdiscipline。Thereisnoneedtoimposedisciplinewhenithasbecomehereditary，butwhentheprimitiveinstinctshavebeenallowedtodestroythebarrierspainfullyerectedbyslowancestrallabours，theycannotbereconstitutedsavebyanenergetictyranny。
　　AsaproofoftheseassertionswemayinstanceanexperimentanalogoustothatundertakenbyChina；thatrecentlyattemptedbyTurkey。AfewyearsagoyoungmeninstructedinEuropeanschoolsandfullofgoodintentionssucceeded，withtheaidofanumberofofficers，inoverthrowingaSultanwhosetyrannyseemedinsupportable。HavingacquiredourrobustLatinfaithinthemagicpowerofformulae，theythoughttheycouldestablishtherepresentativesysteminacountryhalf—civilised，profoundlydividedbyreligioushatred，andpeopledbydiversraces。
　　Theattempthasnotprosperedhitherto。Theauthorsofthereformationhadtolearnthatdespitetheirliberalismtheywereforcedtogovernbymethodsverylikethoseemployedbythegovernmentoverthrown。TheycouldneitherpreventsummaryexecutionsnorwholesalemassacresofChristians，norcouldtheyremedyasingleabuse。
　　Itwouldbeunjusttoreproachthem。Whatintruthcouldtheyhavedonetochangeapeoplewhosetraditionshavebeenfixedsolong，whosereligiouspassionsaresointense，andwhoseMohammedans，althoughintheminority，legitimatelyclaimtogovernthesacredcityoftheirfaithaccordingtotheircode？