Andistherenotilliberalityandavariceinrobbingacorpse，andalsoadegreeofmeannessandwomanishnessinmakinganenemyofthedeadbodywhentherealenemyhasflownawayandleftonlyhisfightinggearbehindhim，——isnotthisratherlikeadogwhocannotgetathisassailant，quarrellingwiththestoneswhichstrikehiminstead？
　　Verylikeadog，hesaid。
　　Thenwemustabstainfromspoilingthedeadorhinderingtheirburial？
　　Yes，hereplied，wemostcertainlymust。
　　Neithershallweofferuparmsatthetemplesofthegods，leastofallthearmsofHellenes，ifwecaretomaintaingoodfeelingwithotherHellenes；and，indeed，wehavereasontofearthattheofferingofspoilstakenfromkinsmenmaybeapollutionunlesscommandedbythegodhimself？
　　Verytrue。
　　Again，astothedevastationofHellenicterritoryortheburningofhouses，whatistobethepractice？
　　MayIhavethepleasure，hesaid，ofhearingyouropinion？
　　Bothshouldbeforbidden，inmyjudgment；Iwouldtaketheannualproduceandnomore。ShallItellyouwhy？
　　Praydo。
　　Why，yousee，thereisadifferenceinthenames’discord’and’war，’andIimaginethatthereisalsoadifferenceintheirnatures；
　　theoneisexpressiveofwhatisinternalanddomestic，theotherofwhatisexternalandforeign；andthefirstofthetwoistermeddiscord，andonlythesecond，war。
　　Thatisaveryproperdistinction，hereplied。
　　AndmayInotobservewithequalproprietythattheHellenicraceisallunitedtogetherbytiesofbloodandfriendship，andalienandstrangetothebarbarians？
　　Verygood，hesaid。
　　AndthereforewhenHellenesfightwithbarbariansandbarbarianswithHellenes，theywillbedescribedbyusasbeingatwarwhentheyfight，andbynatureenemies，andthiskindofantagonismshouldbecalledwar；butwhenHellenesfightwithoneanotherweshallsaythatHellasistheninastateofdisorderanddiscord，theybeingbynaturefriendsandsuchenmityistobecalleddiscord。
　　Iagree。
　　Considerthen，Isaid，whenthatwhichwehaveacknowledgedtobediscordoccurs，andacityisdivided，ifbothpartiesdestroythelandsandburnthehousesofoneanother，howwickeddoesthestrifeappear！Notrueloverofhiscountrywouldbringhimselftotearinpieceshisownnurseandmother：Theremightbereasonintheconquerordeprivingtheconqueredoftheirharvest，butstilltheywouldhavetheideaofpeaceintheirheartsandwouldnotmeantogoonfightingforever。
　　Yes，hesaid，thatisabettertemperthantheother。
　　Andwillnotthecity，whichyouarefounding，beanHelleniccity？
　　Itoughttobe，hereplied。
　　Thenwillnotthecitizensbegoodandcivilized？
　　Yes，verycivilized。
　　AndwilltheynotbeloversofHellas，andthinkofHellasastheirownland，andshareinthecommontemples？
　　Mostcertainly。
　　Andanydifferencewhicharisesamongthemwillberegardedbythemasdiscordonly——aquarrelamongfriends，whichisnottobecalledawar？
　　Certainlynot。
　　Thentheywillquarrelasthosewhointendsomedaytobereconciled？Certainly。
　　Theywillusefriendlycorrection，butwillnotenslaveordestroytheiropponents；theywillbecorrectors，notenemies？
　　Justso。
　　AndastheyareHellenesthemselvestheywillnotdevastateHellas，norwilltheyburnhouses，notevensupposethatthewholepopulationofacity——men，women，andchildren——areequallytheirenemies，fortheyknowthattheguiltofwarisalwaysconfinedtoafewpersonsandthatthemanyaretheirfriends。Andforallthesereasonstheywillbeunwillingtowastetheirlandsandrazetheirhouses；theirenmitytothemwillonlylastuntilthemanyinnocentsufferershavecompelledtheguiltyfewtogivesatisfaction？
　　Iagree，hesaid，thatourcitizensshouldthusdealwiththeirHellenicenemies；andwithbarbariansastheHellenesnowdealwithoneanother。
　　Thenletusenactthislawalsoforourguardians：—thattheyareneithertodevastatethelandsofHellenesnortoburntheirhouses。
　　Agreed；andwemayagreealsointhinkingthatthese，allourpreviousenactments，areverygood。
　　ButstillImustsay，Socrates，thatifyouareallowedtogooninthiswayyouwillentirelyforgettheotherquestionwhichatthecommencementofthisdiscussionyouthrustaside：——Issuchanorderofthingspossible，andhow，ifatall？ForIamquitereadytoacknowledgethattheplanwhichyoupropose，ifonlyfeasible，woulddoallsortsofgoodtotheState。Iwilladd，whatyouhaveomitted，thatyourcitizenswillbethebravestofwarriors，andwillneverleavetheirranks，fortheywillallknowoneanother，andeachwillcalltheotherfather，brother，son；andifyousupposethewomentojointheirarmies，whetherinthesamerankorintherear，eitherasaterrortotheenemy，orasauxiliariesincaseofneed，Iknowthattheywillthenbeabsolutelyinvincible；andtherearemanydomesticticadvantageswhichmightalsobementionedandwhichIalsofullyacknowledge：but，asIadmitalltheseadvantagesandasmanymoreasyouplease，ifonlythisStateofyoursweretocomeintoexistence，weneedsaynomoreaboutthem；
　　assumingthentheexistenceoftheState，letusnowturntothequestionofpossibilityandwaysandmeans——therestmaybeleft。
　　IfIloiterforamoment，youinstantlymakearaiduponme，Isaid，andhavenomercy；Ihavehardlyescapedthefirstandsecondwaves，andyouseemnottobeawarethatyouarenowbringinguponmethethird，whichisthegreatestandheaviest。Whenyouhaveseenandheardthethirdwave，IthinkyoubemoreconsiderateandwillacknowledgethatsomefearandhesitationwasnaturalrespectingaproposalsoextraordinaryasthatwhichIhavenowtostateandinvestigate。
　　Themoreappealsofthissortwhichyoumake，hesaid，themoredeterminedarewethatyoushalltellushowsuchaStateispossible：
　　speakoutandatonce。
　　Letmebeginbyremindingyouthatwefoundourwayhitherinthesearchafterjusticeandinjustice。
　　True，hereplied；butwhatofthat？
　　Iwasonlygoingtoaskwhether，ifwehavediscoveredthem，wearetorequirethatthejustmanshouldinnothingfailofabsolutejustice；ormaywebesatisfiedwithanapproximation，andtheattainmentinhimofahigherdegreeofjusticethanistobefoundinothermen？
　　Theapproximationwillbeenough。
　　Weareenquiringintothenatureofabsolutejusticeandintothecharacteroftheperfectlyjust，andintoinjusticeandtheperfectlyunjust，thatwemighthaveanideal。Weweretolookattheseinorderthatwemightjudgeofourownhappinessandunhappinessaccordingtothestandardwhichtheyexhibitedandthedegreeinwhichweresembledthem，butnotwithanyviewofshowingthattheycouldexistinfact。
　　True，hesaid。
　　Wouldapainterbeanytheworsebecause，afterhavingdelineatedwithconsummateartanidealofaperfectlybeautifulman，hewasunabletoshowthatanysuchmancouldeverhaveexisted？
　　Hewouldbenonetheworse。
　　Well，andwerewenotcreatinganidealofaperfectState？
　　Tobesure。
　　Andisourtheoryaworsetheorybecauseweareunabletoprovethepossibilityofacitybeingorderedinthemannerdescribed？
　　Surelynot，hereplied。
　　Thatisthetruth，Isaid。Butif，atyourrequest，Iamtotryandshowhowandunderwhatconditionsthepossibilityishighest，I
　　mustaskyou，havingthisinview，torepeatyourformeradmissions。
　　Whatadmissions？
　　Iwanttoknowwhetheridealsareeverfullyrealisedinlanguage？
　　Doesnotthewordexpressmorethanthefact，andmustnottheactual，whateveramanmaythink，always，inthenatureofthings，fallshortofthetruth？Whatdoyousay？
　　Iagree。
　　ThenyoumustnotinsistonmyprovingthattheactualStatewillineveryrespectcoincidewiththeideal：ifweareonlyabletodiscoverhowacitymaybegovernednearlyasweproposed，youwilladmitthatwehavediscoveredthepossibilitywhichyoudemand；andwillbecontented。IamsurethatIshouldbecontented——willnotyou？
　　Yes，Iwill。
　　LetmenextendeavourtoshowwhatisthatfaultinStateswhichisthecauseoftheirpresentmaladministration，andwhatistheleastchangewhichwillenableaStatetopassintothetruerform；andletthechange，ifpossible，beofonethingonly，orifnot，oftwo；atanyrate，letthechangesbeasfewandslightaspossible。
　　Certainly，hereplied。
　　Ithink，Isaid，thattheremightbeareformoftheStateifonlyonechangeweremade，whichisnotaslightoreasythoughstillapossibleone。
　　Whatisit？hesaid。
　　Nowthen，Isaid，IgotomeetthatwhichIlikentothegreatestofthewaves；yetshallthewordbespoken，eventhoughthewavebreakanddrownmeinlaughteranddishonour；anddoyoumarkmywords。
　　Proceed。
　　Isaid：Untilphilosophersarekings，orthekingsandprincesofthisworldhavethespiritandpowerofphilosophy，andpoliticalgreatnessandwisdommeetinone，andthosecommonernatureswhopursueeithertotheexclusionoftheotherarecompelledtostandaside，citieswillneverhaverestfromtheirevils，——northehumanrace，asIbelieve，——andthenonlywillthisourStatehaveapossibilityoflifeandbeholdthelightofday。Suchwasthethought，mydearGlaucon，whichIwouldfainhaveutteredifithadnotseemedtooextravagant；fortobeconvincedthatinnootherStatecantherebehappinessprivateorpublicisindeedahardthing。
　　Socrates，whatdoyoumean？Iwouldhaveyouconsiderthatthewordwhichyouhaveutteredisoneatwhichnumerouspersons，andveryrespectablepersonstoo，inafigurepullingofftheircoatsallinamoment，andseizinganyweaponthatcomestohand，willrunatyoumightandmain，beforeyouknowwhereyouare，intendingtodoheavenknowswhat；andifyoudon’tprepareananswer，andputyourselfinmotion，youwillbepreparedbytheirfinewits，’andnomistake。
　　Yougotmeintothescrape，Isaid。
　　AndIwasquiteright；however，IwilldoallIcantogetyououtofit；butIcanonlygiveyougood—willandgoodadvice，and，perhaps，Imaybeabletofitanswerstoyourquestionsbetterthananother——thatisall。Andnow，havingsuchanauxiliary，youmustdoyourbesttoshowtheunbelieversthatyouareright。
　　Ioughttotry，Isaid，sinceyouoffermesuchinvaluableassistance。AndIthinkthat，ifthereistobeachanceofourescaping，wemustexplaintothemwhomwemeanwhenwesaythatphilosophersaretoruleintheState；thenweshallbeabletodefendourselves：TherewillbediscoveredtobesomenatureswhooughttostudyphilosophyandtobeleadersintheState；andotherswhoarenotborntobephilosophers，andaremeanttobefollowersratherthanleaders。
　　Thennowforadefinition，hesaid。
　　Followme，Isaid，andIhopethatImayinsomewayorotherbeabletogiveyouasatisfactoryexplanation。
　　Proceed。
　　Idaresaythatyouremember，andthereforeIneednotremindyou，thatalover，iflieisworthyofthename，oughttoshowhislove，nottosomeonepartofthatwhichheloves，buttothewhole。
　　Ireallydonotunderstand，andthereforebegofyoutoassistmymemory。
　　Anotherperson，Isaid，mightfairlyreplyasyoudo；butamanofpleasurelikeyourselfoughttoknowthatallwhoareintheflowerofyouthdosomehoworotherraiseapangoremotioninalover’sbreast，andarethoughtbyhimtobeworthyofhisaffectionateregards。Isnotthisawaywhichyouhavewiththefair：onehasasnubnose，andyoupraisehischarmingface；thehook—noseofanotherhas，yousay，aroyallook；whilehewhoisneithersnubnorhookedhasthegraceofregularity：thedarkvisageismanly，thefairarechildrenofthegods；andastothesweet’honeypale，’astheyarecalled，whatistheverynamebuttheinventionofaloverwhotalksindiminutives，andisnotadversetopalenessifappearingonthecheekofyouth？Inaword，thereisnoexcusewhichyouwillnotmake，andnothingwhichyouwillnotsay，inordernottoloseasingleflowerthatbloomsinthespring—timeofyouth。
　　Ifyoumakemeanauthorityinmattersoflove，forthesakeoftheargument，Iassent。
　　Andwhatdoyousayofloversofwine？Doyounotseethemdoingthesame？Theyaregladofanypretextofdrinkinganywine。
　　Verygood。
　　Andthesameistrueofambitiousmen；iftheycannotcommandanarmy，theyarewillingtocommandafile；andiftheycannotbehonouredbyreallygreatandimportantpersons，theyaregladtobehonouredbylesserandmeanerpeople，buthonourofsomekindtheymusthave。
　　Exactly。
　　Oncemoreletmeask：Doeshewhodesiresanyclassofgoods，desirethewholeclassorapartonly？
　　Thewhole。
　　Andmaywenotsayofthephilosopherthatheisalover，notofapartofwisdomonly，butofthewhole？
　　Yes，ofthewhole。
　　Andhewhodislikeslearnings，especiallyinyouth，whenhehasnopowerofjudgingwhatisgoodandwhatisnot，suchanonewemaintainnottobeaphilosopheroraloverofknowledge，justashewhorefuseshisfoodisnothungry，andmaybesaidtohaveabadappetiteandnotagoodone？
　　Verytrue，hesaid。
　　Whereashewhohasatasteforeverysortofknowledgeandwhoiscurioustolearnandisneversatisfied，maybejustlytermedaphilosopher？AmInotright？
　　Glauconsaid：Ifcuriositymakesaphilosopher，youwillfindmanyastrangebeingwillhaveatitletothename。Alltheloversofsightshaveadelightinlearning，andmustthereforebeincluded。
　　Musicalamateurs，too，areafolkstrangelyoutofplaceamongphilosophers，fortheyarethelastpersonsintheworldwhowouldcometoanythinglikeaphilosophicaldiscussion，iftheycouldhelp，whiletheyrunaboutattheDionysiacfestivalsasiftheyhadletouttheirearstoheareverychorus；whethertheperformanceisintownorcountry——thatmakesnodifference——theyarethere。Nowarewetomaintainthatalltheseandanywhohavesimilartastes，aswellastheprofessorsofquiteminorarts，arephilosophers？
　　Certainlynot，Ireplied；theyareonlyanimitation。
　　Hesaid：Whothenarethetruephilosophers？
　　Those，Isaid，whoareloversofthevisionoftruth。
　　Thatisalsogood，hesaid；butIshouldliketoknowwhatyoumean？
　　Toanother，Ireplied，Imighthaveadifficultyinexplaining；
　　butIamsurethatyouwilladmitapropositionwhichIamabouttomake。
　　Whatistheproposition？
　　Thatsincebeautyistheoppositeofugliness，theyaretwo？
　　Certainly。
　　Andinasmuchastheyaretwo，eachofthemisone？
　　Trueagain。
　　Andofjustandunjust，goodandevil，andofeveryotherclass，thesameremarkholds：takensingly，eachofthemone；butfromthevariouscombinationsofthemwithactionsandthingsandwithoneanother，theyareseeninallsortsoflightsandappearmany？Verytrue。
　　AndthisisthedistinctionwhichIdrawbetweenthesight—loving，art—loving，practicalclassandthoseofwhomIamspeaking，andwhoarealoneworthyofthenameofphilosophers。
　　Howdoyoudistinguishthem？hesaid。
　　Theloversofsoundsandsights，Ireplied，are，asIconceive，fondoffinetonesandcoloursandformsandalltheartificialproductsthataremadeoutofthem，buttheirmindisincapableofseeingorlovingabsolutebeauty。
　　True，hereplied。
　　Fewaretheywhoareabletoattaintothesightofthis。
　　Verytrue。
　　Andhewho，havingasenseofbeautifulthingshasnosenseofabsolutebeauty，orwho，ifanotherleadhimtoaknowledgeofthatbeautyisunabletofollow——ofsuchanoneIask，Isheawakeorinadreamonly？Reflect：isnotthedreamer，sleepingorwaking，onewholikensdissimilarthings，whoputsthecopyintheplaceoftherealobject？
　　Ishouldcertainlysaythatsuchanonewasdreaming。
　　Buttakethecaseoftheother，whorecognisestheexistenceofabsolutebeautyandisabletodistinguishtheideafromtheobjectswhichparticipateintheidea，neitherputtingtheobjectsintheplaceoftheideanortheideaintheplaceoftheobjects——isheadreamer，orisheawake？
　　Heiswideawake。
　　Andmaywenotsaythatthemindoftheonewhoknowshasknowledge，andthatthemindoftheother，whoopinesonly，hasopinionCertainly。
　　Butsupposethatthelattershouldquarrelwithusanddisputeourstatement，canweadministeranysoothingcordialoradvicetohim，withoutrevealingtohimthatthereissaddisorderinhiswits？
　　Wemustcertainlyofferhimsomegoodadvice，hereplied。
　　Come，then，andletusthinkofsomethingtosaytohim。Shallwebeginbyassuringhimthatheiswelcometoanyknowledgewhichhemayhave，andthatwearerejoicedathishavingit？Butweshouldliketoaskhimaquestion：Doeshewhohasknowledgeknowsomethingornothing？（Youmustanswerforhim。）
　　Ianswerthatheknowssomething。
　　Somethingthatisorisnot？
　　Somethingthatis；forhowcanthatwhichisnoteverbeknown？
　　Andareweassured，afterlookingatthematterfrommanypointsofview，thatabsolutebeingisormaybeabsolutelyknown，butthattheutterlynon—existentisutterlyunknown？
　　Nothingcanbemorecertain。
　　Good。Butiftherebeanythingwhichisofsuchanatureastobeandnottobe，thatwillhaveaplaceintermediatebetweenpurebeingandtheabsolutenegationofbeing？
　　Yes，betweenthem。
　　And，asknowledgecorrespondedtobeingandignoranceofnecessitytonot—being，forthatintermediatebetweenbeingandnot—beingtherehastobediscoveredacorrespondingintermediatebetweenignoranceandknowledge，iftherebesuch？
　　Certainly。
　　Doweadmittheexistenceofopinion？
　　Undoubtedly。
　　Asbeingthesamewithknowledge，oranotherfaculty？
　　Anotherfaculty。
　　Thenopinionandknowledgehavetodowithdifferentkindsofmattercorrespondingtothisdifferenceoffaculties？
　　Yes。
　　Andknowledgeisrelativetobeingandknowsbeing。ButbeforeI
　　proceedfurtherIwillmakeadivision。
　　Whatdivision？
　　Iwillbeginbyplacingfacultiesinaclassbythemselves：theyarepowersinus，andinallotherthings，bywhichwedoaswedo。
　　Sightandhearing，forexample，Ishouldcallfaculties。HaveI
　　clearlyexplainedtheclasswhichImean？
　　Yes，Iquiteunderstand。
　　Thenletmetellyoumyviewaboutthem。Idonotseethem，andthereforethedistinctionsoffire，colour，andthelike，whichenablemetodiscernthedifferencesofsomethings，donotapplytothem。InspeakingofafacultyIthinkonlyofitssphereanditsresult；andthatwhichhasthesamesphereandthesameresultIcallthesamefaculty，butthatwhichhasanothersphereandanotherresultIcalldifferent。Wouldthatbeyourwayofspeaking？
　　Yes。
　　Andwillyoubesoverygoodastoansweronemorequestion？Wouldyousaythatknowledgeisafaculty，orinwhatclasswouldyouplaceit？
　　Certainlyknowledgeisafaculty，andthemightiestofallfaculties。
　　Andisopinionalsoafaculty？
　　Certainly，hesaid；foropinionisthatwithwhichweareabletoformanopinion。
　　Andyetyouwereacknowledgingalittlewhileagothatknowledgeisnotthesameasopinion？
　　Why，yes，hesaid：howcananyreasonablebeingeveridentifythatwhichisinfalliblewiththatwhicherrs？
　　Anexcellentanswer，proving，Isaid，thatwearequiteconsciousofadistinctionbetweenthem。
　　Yes。
　　Thenknowledgeandopinionhavingdistinctpowershavealsodistinctspheresorsubject—matters？
　　Thatiscertain。
　　Beingisthesphereorsubject—matterofknowledge，andknowledgeistoknowthenatureofbeing？
　　Yes。
　　Andopinionistohaveanopinion？
　　Yes。
　　Anddoweknowwhatweopine？oristhesubject—matterofopinionthesameasthesubject—matterofknowledge？
　　Nay，hereplied，thathasbeenalreadydisproven；ifdifferenceinfacultyimpliesdifferenceinthesphereorsubjectmatter，andif，asweweresaying，opinionandknowledgearedistinctfaculties，thenthesphereofknowledgeandofopinioncannotbethesame。
　　Thenifbeingisthesubject—matterofknowledge，somethingelsemustbethesubject—matterofopinion？
　　Yes，somethingelse。
　　Wellthen，isnot—beingthesubject—matterofopinion？or，rather，howcantherebeanopinionatallaboutnot—being？Reflect：whenamanhasanopinion，hashenotanopinionaboutsomething？Canhehaveanopinionwhichisanopinionaboutnothing？
　　Impossible。
　　Hewhohasanopinionhasanopinionaboutsomeonething？
　　Yes。
　　Andnot—beingisnotonethingbut，properlyspeaking，nothing？
　　True。
　　Ofnot—being，ignorancewasassumedtobethenecessarycorrelative；
　　ofbeing，knowledge？
　　True，hesaid。
　　Thenopinionisnotconcernedeitherwithbeingorwithnot—being？
　　Notwitheither。
　　Andcanthereforeneitherbeignorancenorknowledge？
　　Thatseemstobetrue。
　　Butisopiniontobesoughtwithoutandbeyondeitherofthem，inagreaterclearnessthanknowledge，orinagreaterdarknessthanignorance？
　　Inneither。
　　ThenIsupposethatopinionappearstoyoutobedarkerthanknowledge，butlighterthanignorance？
　　Both；andinnosmalldegree。
　　Andalsotobewithinandbetweenthem？
　　Yes。