But，indeed，Mr。Martinhadbeforeusedthestrapofleather。
ThescrewofArchimedesisasancient，atleast，astheageofthatmathematician，whodiedmorethan2，000yearsago。DiodorusSiculusspeaksofit，L。i。，p。21，andL。v。，p。217，ofStevens’
editionof1559，folio；andVitruvius，xii。Thecuttingofitsspiralwormintosectionsforconveyingflourorgrain，seemstohavebeenaninventionofMr。Evans，andtobeafairsubjectofapatentright。ButitcannottakeawayfromotherstheuseofArchimedes’
screwwithitsperpetualspiral，foranypurposesofwhichitissusceptible。
Thehopper-boyisanusefulmachine，andsofarasIknow，original。
Ithasbeenpretendedbysome，andinEnglandespecially，
thatinventorshaveanaturalandexclusiverighttotheirinventions，andnotmerelyfortheirownlives，butinheritabletotheirheirs。Butwhileitisamootquestionwhethertheoriginofanykindofpropertyisderivedfromnatureatall，itwouldbesingulartoadmitanaturalandevenanhereditaryrighttoinventors。Itisagreedbythosewhohaveseriouslyconsideredthesubject，thatnoindividualhas，ofnaturalright，aseparatepropertyinanacreofland，forinstance。Byanuniversallaw，indeed，whatever，whetherfixedormovable，belongstoallmenequallyandincommon，isthepropertyforthemomentofhimwhooccupiesit；butwhenherelinquishestheoccupation，thepropertygoeswithit。Stableownershipisthegiftofsociallaw，andisgivenlateintheprogressofsociety。Itwouldbecuriousthen，ifanidea，thefugitivefermentationofanindividualbrain，could，ofnaturalright，beclaimedinexclusiveandstableproperty。Ifnaturehasmadeanyonethinglesssusceptiblethanallothersofexclusiveproperty，itistheactionofthethinkingpowercalledanidea，whichanindividualmayexclusivelypossessaslongashekeepsittohimself；butthemomentitisdivulged，itforcesitselfintothepossessionofeveryone，andthereceivercannotdispossesshimselfofit。Itspeculiarcharacter，too，isthatnoonepossessestheless，becauseeveryotherpossessesthewholeofit。Hewhoreceivesanideafromme，receivesinstructionhimselfwithoutlesseningmine；ashewholightshistaperatmine，receiveslightwithoutdarkeningme。Thatideasshouldfreelyspreadfromonetoanotherovertheglobe，forthemoralandmutualinstructionofman，andimprovementofhiscondition，seemstohavebeenpeculiarlyandbenevolentlydesignedbynature，whenshemadethem，likefire，expansibleoverallspace，withoutlesseningtheirdensityinanypoint，andliketheairinwhichwebreathe，move，andhaveourphysicalbeing，incapableofconfinementorexclusiveappropriation。
Inventionsthencannot，innature，beasubjectofproperty。Societymaygiveanexclusiverighttotheprofitsarisingfromthem，asanencouragementtomentopursueideaswhichmayproduceutility，butthismayormaynotbedone，accordingtothewillandconvenienceofthesociety，withoutclaimorcomplaintfromanybody。Accordingly，itisafact，asfarasIaminformed，thatEnglandwas，untilwecopiedher，theonlycountryonearthwhichever，byagenerallaw，gavealegalrighttotheexclusiveuseofanidea。Insomeothercountriesitissometimesdone，inagreatcase，andbyaspecialandpersonalact，but，generallyspeaking，othernationshavethoughtthatthesemonopoliesproducemoreembarrassmentthanadvantagetosociety；anditmaybeobservedthatthenationswhichrefusemonopoliesofinvention，areasfruitfulasEnglandinnewandusefuldevices。
Consideringtheexclusiverighttoinventionasgivennotofnaturalright，butforthebenefitofsociety，Iknowwellthedifficultyofdrawingalinebetweenthethingswhichareworthtothepublictheembarrassmentofanexclusivepatent，andthosewhicharenot。Asamemberofthepatentboardforseveralyears，whilethelawauthorizedaboardtograntorrefusepatents，Isawwithwhatslowprogressasystemofgeneralrulescouldbematured。Some，however，wereestablishedbythatboard。Oneofthesewas，thatamachineofwhichwewerepossessed，mightbeappliedbyeverymantoanyuseofwhichitissusceptible，andthatthisrightoughtnottobetakenfromhimandgiventoamonopolist，becausethefirstperhapshadoccasionsotoapplyit。Thusascrewforcrushingplastermightbeemployedforcrushingcorn-cobs。Andachain-pumpforraisingwatermightbeusedforraisingwheat：thisbeingmerelyachangeofapplication。Anotherrulewasthatachangeofmaterialshouldnotgivetitletoapatent。Asthemakingaploughshareofcastratherthanofwroughtiron；acombofironinsteadofhornorofivory，ortheconnectingbucketsbyabandofleatherratherthanofhemporiron。Athirdwasthatamerechangeofformshouldgivenorighttoapatent，asahigh-quarteredshoeinsteadofalowone；
aroundhatinsteadofathree-square；orasquarebucketinsteadofaroundone。Butforthisrule，allthechangesoffashionindresswouldhavebeenunderthetaxofpatentees。Thesewereamongtheruleswhichtheuniformdecisionsoftheboardhadalreadyestablished，andundereachofthemMr。Evans’patentwouldhavebeenrefused。First，becauseitwasamerechangeofapplicationofthechain-pump，fromraisingwatertoraisewheat。Secondly，becausetheusingaleatherninsteadofahempenband，wasamerechangeofmaterial；andthirdly，squarebucketsinsteadofround，areonlyachangeofform，andtheancientforms，too，appeartohavebeenindifferentlysquareorround。Buttherewerestillabundanceofcaseswhichcouldnotbebroughtunderrule，untiltheyshouldhavepresentedthemselvesunderalltheiraspects；andtheseinvestigationsoccupyingmoretimeofthemembersoftheboardthantheycouldsparefromhigherduties，thewholewasturnedovertothejudiciary，tobematuredintoasystem，underwhicheveryonemightknowwhenhisactionsweresafeandlawful。Insteadofrefusingapatentinthefirstinstance，astheboardwasauthorizedtodo，thepatentnowissuesofcourse，subjecttobedeclaredvoidonsuchprinciplesasshouldbeestablishedbythecourtsoflaw。Thisbusiness，however，isbutlittleanalogoustotheircourseofreading，sincewemightinvainturnoverallthelubberlyvolumesofthelawtofindasingleraywhichwouldlightenthepathofthemechanicorthemathematician。Itismorewithintheinformationofaboardofacademicalprofessors，andapreviousrefusalofpatentwouldbetterguardourcitizensagainstharrassmentbylaw-suits。
ButEnglandhadgivenittoherjudges，andtheusualpredominancyofherexamplescarriedittoours。
IthappenedthatIhadmyselfamillbuiltintheintervalbetweenMr。Evans’firstandsecondpatents。IwaslivinginWashington，andlefttheconstructiontothemill-wright。Ididnotevenknowhehaderectedelevators，conveyersandhopper-boys，untilIlearntitbyanapplicationfromMr。Evans’agentforthepatentprice。AlthoughIhadnoideahehadarighttoitbylaw，fornojudicialdecisionhadthenbeengiven，yetIdidnothesitatetoremittoMr。Evanstheoldandmoderatepatentprice，whichwaswhathethenasked，fromawishtoencourageeventheusefulrevivalofancientinventions。ButIthenexpressedmyopinionofthelawinaletter，eithertoMr。Evansortohisagent。
Ihavethus，Sir，atyourrequest，givenyouthefactsandideaswhichoccurtomeonthissubject。Ihavedoneitwithoutreserve，althoughIhavenotthepleasureofknowingyoupersonally。
Inthusfranklycommittingmyselftoyou，Itrustyouwillfeelitasapointofhonorandcandor，tomakenouseofmyletterwhichmightbringdisquietudeonmyself。Andparticularly，IshouldbeunwillingtobebroughtintoanydifferencewithMr。Evans，whom，however，I
believetooreasonabletotakeoffenceatanhonestdifferenceofopinion。Iesteemhimmuch，andsincerelywishhimwealthandhonor。
Ideemhimavaluablecitizen，ofuncommoningenuityandusefulness。
AndhadInotesteemedstillmoretheestablishmentofsoundprinciples，Ishouldnowhavebeensilent。IfanyofthematterI
haveofferedcanpromotethatobject，Ihavenoobjectiontoitsbeingsoused；ifitoffersnothingnew，itwillofcoursenotbeusedatall。Ihavegonewithsomeminutenessintothemathematicalhistoryoftheelevator，becauseitbelongstoabranchofscienceinwhich，asIhavebeforeobserved，itisnotincumbentonlawyerstobelearned；anditispossible，therefore，thatsomeoftheproofsI
havequotedmayhaveescapedontheirformerarguments。OnthelawofthesubjectIshouldnothavetouched，becausemorefamiliartothosewhohavealreadydiscussedit；butIwishedtostatemyownviewofitmerelyinjustificationofmyself，mynameandapprobationbeingsubscribedtotheact。Withtheseexplanations，accepttheassuranceofmyrespect。
A”DUCTILEANDCOPIOUS”LANGUAGE
_ToJohnWaldo_
_Monticello，August16，1813_
SIR，——YourfavorofMarch27thcameduringmyabsenceonajourneyofsomelength。Itcoveredyour”RudimentsofEnglishGrammar，”forwhichIprayyoutoacceptmythanks。Thisacknowledgmentofithasbeendelayed，untilIcouldhavetimetogivetheworksuchaperusalastheavocationstowhichIamsubjectwouldpermit。Intherareandshortintervalswhichthesehaveallottedme，Ihavegoneoverwithpleasureaconsiderablepart，althoughnotyetthewholeofit。ButIamentirelyunqualifiedtogivethatcriticalopinionofitwhichyoudomethefavortoask。
Minehasbeenalifeofbusiness，ofthatkindwhichappealstoaman’sconscience，aswellashisindustry，nottoletitsuffer，andthefewmomentsallowedmefromlaborhavebeendevotedtomoreattractivestudies，thatofgrammarhavingneverbeenafavoritewithme。Thescantyfoundation，laidinatschool，hascarriedmethroughalifeofmuchhastywriting，moreindebtedforstyletoreadingandmemory，thantorulesofgrammar。Ihavebeenpleasedtoseethatinallcasesyouappealtousage，asthearbiteroflanguage；andjustlyconsiderthatasgivinglawtogrammar，andnotgrammartousage。I
concurentirelywithyouinoppositiontoPurists，whowoulddestroyallstrengthandbeautyofstyle，bysubjectingittoarigorouscompliancewiththeirrules。FillupalltheellipsesandsyllepsesofTacitus，Sallust，Livy，&c。，andtheeleganceandforceoftheirsententiousbrevityareextinguished。”Auferre，trucidare，rapere，falsisnominibus，imperiumappellant。””Deoruminjurias，diiscurae。””Allieniappetens，suiprofusus；ardensincupiditatibus；satisloquentiae，sapientiaeparum。””Annibalpetopacem。””PerdiemSolnon_uret_te，nequeLunapernoctem。”Wire-drawtheseexpressionsbyfillingupthewholesyntaxandsense，andtheybecomedullparaphrasesonrichsentiments。WemaysaythentrulywithQuinctilian，”AliudestGrammatice，aliudLatineloqui。”Iamnofriend，therefore，towhatiscalled_Purism_，butazealousonetothe_Neology_whichhasintroducedthesetwowordswithouttheauthorityofanydictionary。
Iconsidertheoneasdestroyingthenerveandbeautyoflanguage，whiletheotherimprovesboth，andaddstoitscopiousness。Ihavebeennotalittledisappointed，andmadesuspiciousofmyownjudgment，onseeingtheEdinburghReviews，theablestcriticsoftheage，settheirfacesagainsttheintroductionofnewwordsintotheEnglishlanguage；theyareparticularlyapprehensivethatthewritersoftheUnitedStateswilladulterateit。Certainlysogreatgrowingapopulation，spreadoversuchanextentofcountry，withsuchavarietyofclimates，ofproductions，ofarts，mustenlargetheirlanguage，tomakeitansweritspurposeofexpressingallideas，thenewaswellastheold。Thenewcircumstancesunderwhichweareplaced，callfornewwords，newphrases，andforthetransferofoldwordstonewobjects。AnAmericandialectwillthereforebeformed；
sowillaWest-IndianandAsiatic，asaScotchandanIrisharealreadyformed。Butwhetherwilltheseadulterate，orenrichtheEnglishlanguage?HasthebeautifulpoetryofBurns，orhisScottishdialect，disfiguredit?DidtheAtheniansconsidertheDoric，theIonian，theAeolic，andotherdialects，asdisfiguringorasbeautifyingtheirlanguage?DidtheyfastidiouslydisavowHerodotus，Pindar，Theocritus，Sappho，Alcaeus，orGrecianwriters?Onthecontrary，theyweresensiblethatthevarietyofdialects，stillinfinitelyvariedbypoeticallicense，constitutedtherichesoftheirlanguage，andmadetheGrecianHomerthefirstofpoets，ashemusteverremain，untilalanguageequallyductileandcopiousshallagainbespoken。
Everylanguagehasasetofterminations，whichmakeapartofitspeculiaridiom。EveryrootamongtheGreekswaspermittedtovaryitstermination，soastoexpressitsradicalideaintheformofanyoneofthepartsofspeech；towit，asanoun，anadjective，averb，participle，oradverb；andeachofthesepartsofspeechagain，bystillvaryingthetermination，couldvarytheshadeofideaexistinginthemind。
***
Itwasnot，then，thenumberofGrecianrootsforsomeotherlanguagesmayhaveasmanywhichmadeitthemostcopiousoftheancientlanguages；buttheinfinitediversificationwhicheachoftheseadmitted。LetthesamelicensebeallowedinEnglish，therootsofwhich，nativeandadopted，areperhapsmorenumerous，anditsidiomaticterminationsmorevariousthanoftheGreek，andseewhatthelanguagewouldbecome。Itsidiomaticterminationsare：——
_Subst。_Gener-ation——ator；degener-acy；
gener-osity——ousness——alship——alissimo；king-dom——ling；joy-ance；
enjoy-er——ment；herb-age——alist；sanct-uary——imony——itude；royal-ism；
lamb-kin；child-hood；bishop-ric；proceed-ure；horseman-ship；
worthi-ness。
_Adj_。Gener-ant——ative——ic——ical——able——ous——al；
joy-ful——less——some；herb-y；accous-escent——ulent；child-ish；
wheat-en。
_Verb_。Gener-ate——alize。
_Part_。Gener-ating——ated。
_Adv_。Gener-al——ly。
Idonotpretendthatthisisacompletelistofalltheterminationsofthetwolanguages。Itisasmuchsoasahastyrecollectionsuggests，andtheomissionsareaslikelytobetothedisadvantageoftheoneastheother。Ifitbeafull，orequallyfairenumeration，theEnglisharethedoubleoftheGreekterminations。
Butthereisstillanothersourceofcopiousnessmoreabundantthanthatoftermination。Itisthecompositionoftheroot，andofeverymemberofitsfamily，1，withprepositions，and2，withotherwords。TheprepositionsusedinthecompositionofGreekwordsare：——
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Nowmultiplyeachterminationofafamilyintoeverypreposition，andhowprolificdoesitmakeeachroot！ButtheEnglishlanguage，besidesitsownprepositions，abouttwentyinnumber，whichitcompoundswithEnglishroots，usesthoseoftheGreekforadoptedGreekroots，andoftheLatinforLatinroots。TheEnglishprepositions，withexamplesoftheiruse，area，asina-long，a-board，a-thirst，a-clock；be，asinbe-lie；mis，asinmis-hap；thesebeinginseparable。Theseparable，withexamples，areabove-cited，after-thought，gain-say，before-hand，fore-thought，behind-hand，by-law，for-give，fro-ward，in-born，on-set，over-go，out-go，thorough-go，under-take，up-lift，with-stand。Nowletusseewhatcopiousnessthiswouldproduce，wereitallowedtocompoundeveryrootanditsfamilywitheverypreposition，wherebothsenseandsoundwouldbeinitsfavor。TryitonanEnglishroot，theverb”toplace，”AngloSaxon_plaece_，*forinstance，andtheGreekandLatinroots，ofkindredmeaning，adoptedinEnglish，towit，{thesis}
andlocatio，withtheirprepositions。
*Johnsonderives”place”fromtheFrench”place，”anopensquareinatown。Butitsnorthernparentageisvisibleinitssyno-nime_platz_，Teutonic，and_plattse_，Belgic，bothofwhichsignifylocus，andtheAnglo-Saxon_plaece，platea，vicus_。
mis-placeamphi-thesisa-locationinter-locationafter-placeana-thesisab-locationintro-locationgain-placeanti-thesisabs-locationjuxta-locationfore-placeapo-thesisal-locationob-locationhind-placedia-thesisanti-locationper-locationby-placeek-thesiscircum-locationpost-locationfor-placeen-thesiscis-locationpre-locationfro-placeepi-thesiscol-locationpreter-locationin-placecata-thesiscontra-locationpro-locationon-placepara-thesisde-locationretro-locationover-placeperi-thesisdi-locationre-locationout-placepro-thesisdis-locationse-locationthorough-placepros-thesise-locationsub-locationunder-placesyn-thesisex-locationsuper-locationup-placehyper-thesisextra-locationtrans-locationwith-placehypo-thesisil-locationultra-locationSomeofthesecompoundswouldbenew；butallpresentdistinctmeanings，andthesynonismsofthethreelanguagesofferachoiceofsoundstoexpressthesamemeaning；addtothis，thatinsomeinstances，usagehasauthorizedthecompoundinganEnglishrootwithaLatinpreposition，asinde-place，dis-place，re-place。Thisexamplemaysufficetoshowwhatthelanguagewouldbecome，instrength，beauty，variety，andeverycircumstancewhichgivesperfectiontolanguage，wereitpermittedfreelytodrawfromallitslegitimatesources。
Thesecondsourceofcompositionisofonefamilyofrootswithanother。TheGreekavailsitselfofthismostabundantly，andbeautifully。TheEnglishoncediditfreely，whileinitsAnglo-Saxonform，_e。g。boc-craeft_，book-craft，learning，_riht-Zeleaf-full_，right-belief-ful，orthodox。Butithaslostbydesuetudemuchofthisbranchofcomposition，whichitisdesirablehowevertoresume。
IfwewishtobeassuredfromexperimentoftheeffectofajudiciousspiritofNeology，lookattheFrenchlanguage。Evenbeforetherevolution，itwasdeemedmuchmorecopiousthantheEnglish；atatime，too，whentheyhadanacademywhichendeavoredtoarresttheprogressoftheirlanguage，byfixingittoaDictionary，outofwhichnowordwasevertobesought，used，ortolerated。Theinstitutionofparliamentaryassembliesin1789，forwhichtheirlanguagehadnooppositetermsorphrases，ashavingneverbeforeneededthem，firstobligedthemtoadopttheParliamentaryvocabularyofEngland；andothernewcircumstancescalledforcorrespondingnewwords；untilbythenumberoftheseadopted，andbytheanalogiesforadoptionwhichtheyhavelegitimated，IthinkwemaysaywithtruththataDictionaireNeologiqueofthesewouldbehalfaslargeasthedictionaryoftheacademy；andthatatthistimeitisthelanguageinwhicheveryshadeofidea，distinctlyperceivedbythemind，maybemoreexactlyexpressed，thaninanylanguageatthisdayspokenbyman。YetIhavenohesitationinsayingthattheEnglishlanguageisfoundedonabroaderbase，nativeandadopted，andcapable，withthelikefreedomofemployingitsmaterials，ofbecomingsuperiortothatincopiousnessandeuphony。NotindeedbyholdingfasttoJohnson’sDictionary；notbyraisingahueandcryagainsteverywordhehasnotlicensed；butbyencouragingandwelcomingnewcompositionsofitselements。LearnfromLyeandBensonwhatthelanguagewouldnowhavebeenifrestrainedtotheirvocabularies。Itsenlargementmustbetheconsequence，toacertaindegree，ofitstransplantationfromthelatitudeofLondonintoeveryclimateoftheglobe；andthegreaterthedegreethemorepreciouswillitbecomeastheorganofthedevelopmentofthehumanmind。
ThesearemyvisionsontheimprovementoftheEnglishlanguagebyafreeuseofitsfaculties。Torealizethemwouldrequireacourseoftime。Theexampleofgoodwriters，theapprobationofmenofletters，thejudgmentofsoundcritics，andofnonemorethanoftheEdinburghReviewers，wouldgiveitabeginning，andoncebegun，itsprogressmightbeasrapidasithasbeeninFrance，whereweseewhataperiodofonlytwentyyearshaseffected。UndertheauspicesofBritishscienceandexampleitmightcommencewithhope。Butthedreadofinnovationthere，andespeciallyofanyexamplesetbyFrance，has，Ifear，palsiedthespiritofimprovement。Here，whereallisnew，noinnovationisfearedwhichoffersgood。Butwehavenodistinctclassofliteratiinourcountry。Everymanisengagedinsomeindustriouspursuit，andscienceisbutasecondaryoccupation，alwayssubordinatetothemainbusinessofhislife。Fewthereforeofthosewhoarequalified，haveleisuretowrite。Intimeitwillbeotherwise。Inthemeanwhile，necessityobligesustoneologize。